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Warm hints: this article reading time is about 15 minutes. This article is mainly about learning several kinds of industrial weapons - sensors. Automation technology is a comprehensive technology. It has a very close relationship with cybernetics, information theory, systems engineering, computer technology, electronics, hydraulic pressure technology, and automatic control, among which automation is based on control theory and computer technology.   CatalogI、Automation TechnologyII、Physical SensorIII、Fiber Optic SensorIV、Bionic SensorV、Infrared SensorVI、Electromagnetic SensorVII、Magneto-optical Effect SensorVIII、How to Choose Industrial SensorsFAQ I. Automation Technology Automation technology is a comprehensive technology. It has a very close relationship with cybernetics, information theory, system engineering, computer technology, electronics, hydraulic pressure technology, automatic control, etc., of which automation and control theory and computer technology The most influential technology. There are a lot of special equipment in automation technology, just like the different weapons, the author made a count of the automated weapons below.II. Physical SensorPhysical sensorSensor (Sensor) is a common but very important device. A sensor is a device, module, or subsystem whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment and send the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor. For the sensor, the input can be divided into static and dynamic according to the input state. We can get the static characteristics of the sensor based on the relationship between the output and the input based on the steady-state of each value.  The main indicators of the static characteristics of the sensor are linearity, hysteresis, repeatability, sensitivity, and accuracy. The dynamic characteristics of a sensor refer to the response characteristics of the input over time. Dynamic characteristics are usually described using automatically controlled models such as transfer functions. In general, the signal received by the sensor has a weak low-frequency signal, and the amplitude of the external interference sometimes exceeds the measured signal. Therefore, eliminating the noise in series becomes a key sensor technology. The physical sensor is a sensor that detects physical quantities by the use of certain physical effects. The sensor can convert measured physical volume into a form of energy to facilitate the processing of the signal device. The output signal and the input signal have a definite relationship. The main physical sensors include photoelectric sensors, piezoelectric sensors, piezoresistive sensors, electromagnetic sensors, pyroelectric sensors, and optical fiber sensors.  As an example, let us look at the more commonly used photoelectric sensors. This kind of sensor converts the optical signal into an electrical signal. It directly detects the radiation information from the object and can also convert other physical quantities into an optical signal. The main principle is the photoelectric effect: When the light is irradiated to the material, the electrical effect on the material changes, and the electrical effects here include electron emission, conductivity, and potential current. Obviously, a device that can easily produce such an effect becomes a major component of a photoelectric sensor, such as a photoresistor.  In this way, we know that the main working process of a photoelectric sensor is to receive the corresponding light, convert the light energy into electricity through a device such as a photosensitive resistance, and then obtain the required output by amplification and denoising electric signal. The output electrical signal here has a certain relationship with the original optical signal, which is usually close to a linear relationship so that the calculation of the original optical signal is not very complicated. The principles of other physical sensors can be compared to optical sensors. The range of applications of physical sensors is very extensive. We look at the application of physical sensors from the perspective of biomedical sciences. It is not difficult to infer that physical sensors have important applications in other aspects. For example, blood pressure measurement is the most common type of medical measurement. Our usual blood pressure measurement is an indirect measure of the blood pressure in the vessel by measuring the relationship between blood flow and pressure detected by the body surface. The sensors needed to measure blood pressure usually include an elastic diaphragm that transforms the pressure signal into a deformation of the diaphragm and then converts it into a corresponding electrical signal based on the strain or displacement of the diaphragm. At the peak of the electrical signal, we can detect systolic pressure. After passing through the inverter and the peak detector, we can get the diastolic pressure. The average pressure can be obtained through the integrator. Let us look again at breath measurement technology. Respiratory measurement is an important basis for the clinical diagnosis of lung function and is essential in surgery and patient monitoring. For example, when using a thermistor sensor for measuring respiratory rate, mount the sensor's resistance on the outside of the front end of a clip, clip the clip over the nose, and pass the heat as the flow of breathing gas flows from the thermistor surface Sensitive resistance to measure the frequency of breathing and the status of hot gas. Another example of the most common body surface temperature measurement process. Although it seems easy, it has a complex measurement mechanism. The body surface temperature is determined by various factors such as the local blood flow, the heat conduction of the underlying tissue, and the heat dissipation of the epidermis. Therefore, the measurement of the skin temperature must take into account various influences.  Thermocouple sensors are more commonly used in the measurement of temperature, usually rod-shaped thermocouple sensors and thin-film thermocouple sensors. Because the size of the thermocouple is very small and the accuracy is relatively high, it is possible to measure the temperature at a certain point accurately. With the help of later analysis statistics, a more comprehensive analysis result can be obtained. This is incomparable with the traditional mercury thermometer, but also shows the broad prospects for the application of new technologies to scientific development. From the above introduction, it can be seen that physical sensors have a variety of applications just in biomedical applications. The development direction of the sensor is a multifunctional, imaged, intelligent sensor. Sensor measurement as an important means of data acquisition is indispensable for industrial production and even family life, and physical sensors are the most common family of sensors. The flexible use of physical sensors will inevitably create more products and better benefits. III. Fiber Optic SensorFiber optic sensorIn recent years, sensors have evolved in the direction of sensitivity, precision, adaptability, compactness, and intelligence. In the process, fiber optic sensors are a new addition to the sensor family. Optical fiber has many excellent properties, such as anti-electromagnetic interference and atomic radiation performance, fine diameter, soft, lightweight mechanical properties, insulation, non-inductive electrical properties, water resistance, high-temperature resistance, corrosion resistance, chemical properties, etc. It can reach people's eyes and ears in unattainable places (such as high-temperature areas), or in areas harmful to humans (such as nuclear radiation area), but also can transcend human physiological boundaries and receive sensory organs Unforeseen outside information. Optical fiber sensors are new technologies that have emerged in recent years. It can be used to measure a variety of physical quantities, such as sound fields, electric fields, pressures, temperatures, angular velocities, and accelerations, as well as measurement tasks that are difficult to accomplish with existing measurement techniques. In tight spaces, fiber optic sensors show unique capabilities in environments with strong electromagnetic interference and high voltage. At present, there are more than 70 optical fiber sensors, which are roughly divided into optical fiber sensors and optical fiber sensors. The so-called optical fiber sensor itself is the optical fiber directly to receive the outside world was measured. The external measured physical quantity can cause the length, refractive index, and diameter of the measuring arm to change so that the light transmitted within the fiber changes in amplitude, phase, frequency, polarization, and the like. The light transmitted by the measuring arm interferes (compares) with the reference light of the reference arm to change the phase (or amplitude) of the output light, and the change in the measured light can be detected based on this change. The phase of the transmission in the optical fiber is highly sensitive to external influences, and the interferometric technique can detect the physical quantity corresponding to the slight phase change of 10 negative quadratic arcs. For the optical fiber’s winding and low loss characteristics, we can disc a long fiber optic into a small diameter optical fiber ring in order to increase the length, to obtain higher sensitivity. An optical fiber acoustic sensor is a kind of sensor using the optical fiber itself. When the fiber is a little tiny external force, it will produce micro-bending, and its light transmission capacity has undergone great changes. Sound is a kind of mechanical wave. Its effect on the optical fiber is to stress and bend the optical fiber. By bending, the sound intensity can be obtained. Compared with laser gyro, FOG has high sensitivity, small size, and low cost. It can be used in the high-performance inertial navigation systems of aircraft, ships, and missiles. Another major category of fiber optic sensors is the use of fiber optic sensors. The structure is rough as follows: The sensor is located at the end of the fiber. The fiber is just the transmission line of light, and the physical quantity to be measured is transformed into the change of the amplitude, phase, or amplitude of the light. In this sensor system, conventional sensors are combined with optical fibers. The introduction of optical fibers offers the possibility of implementing probing telemetry. This fiber-optic transmission sensor has a wide range of applications and is easy to use, but its accuracy is slightly lower than that of the first type of sensor. Fiber optic sensors have become a rising star in sensor families with their numerous advantages and have played their own unique role in various measurements and become an indispensable part of the sensor family. IV. Bionic SensorBionic sensorA bionic sensor is a new sensor using a new detection principle, which uses immobilized cells, enzymes, or other bioactive substances and transducers to form a sensor. This kind of sensor is a new type of information technology developed in recent years by the mutual penetration of biomedicine and electronics and engineering. This sensor is characterized by high performance and long life. In bionic sensors, biometric sensors are more commonly used. Bionic sensors in accordance with the media used can be divided into enzyme sensors, microbial sensors, organelle sensors, tissue sensors. In the picture, we can see that there is a close connection between the biomimetic sensor and all aspects of the biological theory and it is a direct result of the development of the biological theory. Among biosensors, urea sensors are a recently developed type of sensor. The following is an example of a urea sensor biosensor sensor application. The urea sensor is mainly composed of two parts, a biofilm, and an ion channel. The biofilm can feel the effects of external stimuli, the ion channel can receive the information of the biofilm and amplify and deliver it. When the sensory site inside the film is affected by an external stimulating substance, the permeability of the membrane will change, allowing a large number of ions to flow into the cell to form the transmission of information. Among them, the important component of the biofilm is the membrane protein, which can produce a conformal network change, change the permeability of the membrane, and transmit and amplify the information. The biofilm ion channels, which are composed of amino acid polymers, can be replaced by polymers of polyamine acids (L-glutamic acid, PLG), which are easily synthesized in organic chemistry, and are more chemically stable than the enzyme. PLG is water-soluble, which is not suitable for motor modification. However, PLG and polymer can synthesize block copolymers to form sensor films for sensors. The principle of the ion channel of the biofilm is basically the same as that of the biofilm. After the block copolymer film is fixed on the electrode, if a substance that changes the inductive network of the PLG is added, the permeability of the film changes, and thus a current is generated. Changes in the current from the changes can be carried out on the detection of stimulating substances. The urea sensor has been tested and proved to be a biometric analog sensor with good stability. The lower limit of detection is 10 orders of magnitude of a negative third power. It can also detect irritant substances, but for the time being it is not suitable for the measurement of living organisms. At present, although many biomimetic sensors have been developed successfully, the stability, reproducibility, and mass productivity of biomimetic sensors are obviously insufficient. Therefore, biomimetic sensing technology is still in its infancy. Therefore, in addition to continuing to develop a new series of biomimetic sensors And improve the existing series, the biomembrane immobilization technology and solid-state biomimetic sensor deserved further study. In the near future, biomimetic sensors that simulate the functions of the organism will appear, which may exceed the sensitivity of human facial features and improve the robot's vision, taste, touch, and ability to operate on objects. We can see the broad prospects for biomimetic sensor applications, but these require the further development of biotechnology, and we'll see this day coming. V. Infrared SensorInfrared sensorInfrared technology has been developed to the present, as we all know. This technology has been widely used in modern science and technology, national defense and agriculture, and other fields. Infrared sensing systems are infrared-based measurement systems that can be divided into five categories based on function:  (1) radiometers for radiation and spectroscopic measurements; (2) search and tracking systems for searching and tracking infrared targets, determining Its spatial position and its movement are tracked; (3) The thermal imaging system can produce a distribution image of the entire target infrared radiation; (4) Infrared ranging and communication systems; (5) Hybrid systems, refer to the above categories A combination of two or more in the system. Let us look at the composition of the infrared system, the main optical system, and auxiliary optical system, on the basis of which the key components of infrared are discussed in detail. In fact, the working principle of the infrared sensor is not complicated, the working principle of each part of a typical sensor system is as follows: (1)The target object. According to the infrared radiation characteristics of the target to be set, the infrared system can be set. (2)Atmospheric attenuation. When the target's infrared radiation passes through the Earth's atmosphere, the infrared radiation emitted by the infrared source will be attenuated due to the scattering and absorption of gas molecules and various gases, and various sol particles. (3) Optical receiver. It receives a portion of the target's infrared radiation and transmits it to the infrared sensor. Equivalent to a radar antenna, often used as an objective lens. (4) Radiation modulator. Radiation from the target under test is modulated into alternating radiant light to provide the target orientation information and to filter out large areas of interfering signals. Also known as a reticle and chopper, it has a variety of structures. (5) Infrared detector. This is the heart of the infrared system. It is the use of infrared radiation and the physical interaction between the physical effects of detecting infrared radiation sensors, in most cases is the use of this interaction presented by the electrical effects. Such detectors can be divided into two types of photon detectors and thermal detectors. (6) Detector cooler. Since some detectors must work at low temperatures, the corresponding system must have refrigeration equipment. After cooling, the equipment can shorten the response time and increase detection sensitivity. (7) Signal processing system. The detected signal is amplified, filtered, and extracted from these signals. This information is then converted into the required format and finally delivered to the control device or display. (8) Display device. This is the terminal device of the infrared device. Commonly used displays include oscilloscopes, kinescopes, infrared sensitized materials, indicating instruments, and recorders. Here gives a video of infrared sensors:Working principle of infrared sensorAccording to the above process, the infrared system can complete the measurement of the corresponding physical quantity. The infrared system is the core of infrared detectors, according to the detection mechanism of different, can be divided into two categories of heat detectors and photon detectors. The heat detector is used as an example to analyze the principle of the detector. The thermal detector is the use of radiant heat effect, so that the detection element causes the temperature to rise after receiving radiation, and thus makes the detector temperature-dependent performance changes. By detecting a change in one of these properties, radiation can be detected. In most cases, radiation is detected by thermoelectric changes. When the element receives the radiation and causes a non-electrical physical change, the corresponding change in the amount of electricity can be measured by appropriate transformation. Infrared sensors have played an important role in modern production practices. With the improvement of detection equipment and other parts of technology, infrared sensors can have more performance and better sensitivity. VI. Electromagnetic Sensor Magnetic sensors are the oldest sensors and compass is the earliest application of magnetic sensors. However, as a modern sensor, in order to facilitate the signal processing, a magnetic sensor is required to convert the magnetic signal into an electrical signal. The earliest applications were magnetoelectric sensors manufactured on the principle of electromagnetic induction. This magnetic sensor has made an outstanding contribution to industrial control. But today it has been replaced by a new type of magnetic sensor based mainly on high-performance magnetically sensitive materials.The shape of an electromagnetic sensorAmong the electromagnetic effect sensors used today, the magnetic rotation sensor is an important one. Magnetic rotation sensor mainly by the semiconductor magnetoresistive components, permanent magnets, fixtures, enclosures, and other components. A typical structure is a pair of magnetoresistive elements mounted on a permanent magnet stimulation, the input and output terminals connected to the fixture, and then installed in the metal box, and then sealed with plastic to form a closed structure, the structure has good reliability. Magnetic rotation sensor has many advantages of semiconductor magnetoresistance element. In addition to having high sensitivity and a large output signal, it also has a strong speed detection range, which is due to the development of electronic technology. In addition, this sensor can also be used in a wide temperature range, has a long working life, resistance to dust, water, and oil, and therefore withstand a variety of environmental conditions and external noise. Therefore, this kind of sensor has received widespread attention in industrial applications. Magnetic rotary sensors are widely used in factory automation systems because they have satisfactory characteristics and do not require maintenance. Its main application is the machine tool servo motor rotation detection, factory automation robotic arm positioning, hydraulic stroke detection, factory automation related equipment position detection, rotary encoder detection unit, and a variety of rotating detection unit. Modern magnetic rotation sensors mainly include four-phase sensors and single-phase sensors. In the course of work, four-phase differential rotation sensor with a pair of detection unit to achieve differential detection, the other to achieve the inverted differential detection. In this way, four-phase sensor detection capability is four times single-element. The two-element single-phase rotation sensor also has its own advantages, that is, small and reliable features, and the output signal can detect low-speed movement, anti-environmental impact, and anti-noise ability, low cost. Therefore, single-phase sensors will also have a good market. Magnetic rotary sensors also have great potential for use in household appliances. In the reversing mechanism of the cassette recorder, a magnetic resistance element can be used to detect the end of the magnetic tape. Most home video recorders have a variable speed and high-speed playback function, which can also be used magnetic spindle sensors to detect the spindle speed and control, to obtain a high picture quality. The positive and negative rotation of the motor in the washing machine and the high and low-speed rotation functions can be detected and controlled by the servo rotation sensor. Electromagnetic proximity switch. This switch can be sensed into the metal area of their own test objects, control their own internal circuit on or off. The switch generates its own magnetic field. When a metal object enters the magnetic field, it will cause a change in the magnetic field. This change can be turned into an electrical signal by switching the internal circuitry. The electromagnetic sensor is a widely used high-tech, both at home and abroad have invested some research efforts in research, the application of this sensor is penetrating into the national economy, national defense construction and people's daily life in all fields, with the information The arrival of society, its status and role will certainly be more prominent. VII. Magneto-optical Effect SensorMagneto-optical effect sensorModern electric measurement technology is maturing day by day, has the advantages of high precision, easy to real-time processing connected to a microcomputer, etc., has been widely used in the measurement of electrical and non-electrical measurements. However, the electrical measurement method is susceptible to interference. In the AC measurement, the frequency response is not wide enough and there are certain requirements on voltage and insulation. With the rapid development of laser technology, the above problems have been solved. Magneto-optic effect sensors are high-performance sensors using laser technology. Laser is another new technology that has been rapidly developed in the early 1960s. Its appearance signals that people have mastered and utilized light waves and entered a new stage. Due to the low monochromaticity of ordinary light sources in the past, many important applications are limited. The advent of lasers makes radio technology and optical technology by leaps and bounds, penetrate each other and complement each other. Today, many sensors have been fabricated using lasers that solve many of the unsolved technical problems that make them suitable for use in hazardous, flammable places such as coal, oil, and gas storage. For example, optical fiber sensors made of laser can measure the situation of crude oil injection, cracking oil tank parameters. It is not necessary to supply power at the place of measurement. This is particularly applicable to the petrochemical equipment group that requires strict safety and explosion protection measures. It can also be used to implement optical method telemetry chemistry in some aspects of large-scale steel plants. The principle of magneto-optic effect sensor mainly utilizes the polarization state of light to realize the function of the sensor. When a beam of polarized light passes through the medium, if there is an external magnetic field in the beam propagation direction, the light will rotate through the plane of polarization by an angle, which is the magneto-optical effect. That is, the applied magnetic field can be measured by the angle of rotation. Under certain experimental setups, the angle of deflection is proportional to the intensity of the output, and the laser diode LD is illuminated by the output light to obtain the digitized light intensity that is used to measure a particular physical quantity.Magneto-optical effect sensorSince the late 1960s, RC Lecraw has raised great concerns after his research report on magneto-optical effects was presented. Japan, the Soviet Union, and other countries have conducted research, and domestic scholars have also explored it. Magneto-optical sensor with excellent electrical insulation properties and anti-interference, wide frequency response, safety, and explosion-proof and other characteristics, and therefore for some special occasions electromagnetic parameters of measurement, has a unique effect, especially in the power system high voltage and current The measurement aspect shows its potential advantages. At the same time, by developing the software and hardware of the processing system, automatic real-time measurement of the welding machine and the robot control system can also be realized. In the use of magneto-optic effect sensors, the most important thing is to choose magneto-optical media and lasers. Different devices have different capabilities in terms of sensitivity and working range. With the advent of high-performance lasers and new types of magneto-optical media in recent decades, the performance of magneto-optical effect sensors has become stronger and the applications have become more widespread. Magneto-optical sensor, as a specific purpose sensor, can play its own function in a particular environment. It is also a very important industrial sensor.  VIII. How to Choose Industrial SensorsModern sensors vary widely in principle and structure. How to select a sensor based on a specific measurement purpose, measurement object, and measurement environment is the first problem to be solved when performing a certain amount of measurement. When the sensor is determined, the matching measuring method and measuring equipment can be determined. The success or failure of measurement results depends to a large extent on the reasonableness of the choice of sensors. The influencing factors are:  (1) Determine the type of the sensor according to the measurement object and the measurement environment. (2)Selection of the sensitivity. (3)Frequency response. (4) Linear range. (5)Stability.(6) Accuracy. FAQ 1. What sensor means?a device that responds to a physical stimulus (such as heat, light, sound, pressure, magnetism, or a particular motion) and transmits a resulting impulse (as for measurement or operating a control) .2. What is the purpose of a sensor?A sensor converts the physical action to be measured into an electrical equivalent and processes it so that the electrical signals can be easily sent and further processed. The sensor can output whether an object is present or not present (binary) or what measurement value has been reached (analog or digital). 3. How do sensors work?Put simply, a sensor converts stimuli such as heat, light, sound and motion into electrical signals. These signals are passed through an interface that converts them into a binary code and passes this on to a computer to be processed. 4. What can sensors detect?Broadly speaking, sensors are devices that detect and respond to changes in an environment. Inputs can come from a variety of sources such as light, temperature, motion and pressure. 5. What are the importance of sensors in our daily life?Intelligent sensor systems are omnipresent in our everyday lives. They provide security, save lives and improve our quality of life. As more and more areas of life are automated and networked, the importance of innovative sensor technologies will also increase in the future. 6. How do we classify sensors?Classification of Sensors:Active and Passive Sensors. Contact and Non-Contact Sensors.Absolute and Relative Sensors.Analog and Digital Sensors.Miscellaneous Sensors. 7. How are sensors used to collect data?With a sensor, a machine observes the environment and information can be collected. A sensor measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal. Sensors translate measurements from the real world into data for the digital domain. 8. What is the difference between sensor and transducer?The main difference between sensor and transducer is that a transducer is a device that can convert energy from one form to another, whereas a sensor is a device that can detect a physical quantity and convert the data into an electrical signal. 9. Why do we need a temperature sensor?Within our homes, temperature sensors are used in many electrical appliances, from our refrigerators and freezers to help regulate and maintain cold temperatures as well as within stoves and ovens to ensure that they heat to the required levels for cooking, air confectioners/heaters. 10. How sensors are connected?A sensor device directly connected to a computer. A connected sensor is a sensor that also has a way to send data to either a local network or the Internet. Diagram of a sensor receiving waves on the left and broadcasting a wireless signal on the right to a router. A sensor device wirelessly connected to a network. 11. Can a transducer be a sensor?A Sensor is defined as a device which measures a physical quality (light, sound, space) and converts them into an easily readable format. If calibrated correctly, sensors are highly accurate devices. Not all transducers are sensors but most sensors are transducers. 12. What is the difference between active and passive sensors?Active sensors have its own source of light or illumination. In particular, it actively sends a pulse and measures the backscatter reflected to the sensor. But passive sensors measure reflected sunlight emitted from the sun. When the sun shines, passive sensors measure this energy. 13. What are the basic characteristics considered in the process of sensor selection?Sensor selection criteria include temperature, size, protection class, and whether the sensor requires a discrete or analog input. Also consider sensor repetition accuracy, sensor response speed, and sensing range. 14. What are the applications of sensors?Sensors are central to industrial applications being used for process control, monitoring, and safety. Sensors are also central to medicine being used for diagnostics, monitoring, critical care, and public health. 15. How do you check the accuracy of a sensor?To find out the accuracy of sensor you have to take several readings by your sensor on that particular one input parameter (like. temperature). after accumulating those sensor output values evaluate the standard deviation as per law, which indicate the accuracy level of your sensor. You May Also Like GPS and inertial sensors for driverless applicationsA New Technology for Advancing Opticals,Sensors Even Resistant SupercapacitorsSensors are Always In a State of Rapid ProgressComprehensive Analysis of Fiber Optic Sensor 

  Light emitting diode (LED) is a light source that meets the requirements of green lighting. LEDs are safe, efficient, environmentally friendly, long-lived, responsive, small in size and robust in construction with many features that are unmatched by ordinary light-emitting devices. Moreover, it is one of the first semiconductor devices and is widely used. Currently, LEDs are widely used as indicators for various electronic products and as light sources for fiber optic communication.     How dose a diode work?     Catalog I What is a diode? II How dose a diode work? III What is diode characteristics? IV What are diode parameters? V What are the types of diodes? FAQ   I What is a diode?   Diode is an electronic device made of semiconductor materials (silicon, selenium, germanium, etc.) . It has a unidirectional conductivity, that is, the diode anode and cathode to add a forward voltage, the diode conducts. When the reverse voltage is added to the anode and cathode, the diode cuts off. Therefore, the on and off of the diode is equivalent to the on and off of the switch.   In almost all electronic circuits, semiconductor diodes are used. The use of semiconductor diodes in the circuit can play a role in protecting the circuit, extending the life of the circuit. The development of semiconductor diodes has made integrated circuits more optimized and has played an active role in various fields. Diodes have many roles in integrated circuits and maintain the proper functioning of the integrated circuits.     Diodes were one of the first semiconductor devices to be created, and their applications are very widespread. Especially in a variety of electronic circuits, the use of diodes and resistors, capacitors, inductors and other components to make a reasonable connection to form a circuit of different functions, you can achieve a variety of functions such as rectification of alternating current, detection of modulated signals, limiting and clamping, and voltage regulation of the supply voltage. Whether in common radio circuits or in other household appliances or industrial control circuits, diodes can be found.   A diode is made of a PN junction with corresponding electrode leads and a tube housing package. The diode has two electrodes, the electrode leading from the P area is the positive electrode, also known as the anode; the electrode leading from the N area is the negative electrode, also known as the cathode.       Diode structure         There are many kinds of diodes:  - According to the semiconductor materials used, they can be divided into germanium diodes and silicon diodes.   - According to their different uses, they can be divided into detector diodes, rectifier diodes, zener diodes, switching diodes, etc.   - According to the structure of the tube core, they can be divided into point-contact diodes, surface-contact diodes and planar diodes.     --  The point contact diodes are pressed on the smooth surface of the semiconductor wafer with a thin metal wire. With pulse current, one end of the contact wire is sintered firmly with the wafer to form a "PN junction". Due to point contact, only small currents (no more than a few tens of mA) are allowed, which is suitable for high frequency low current circuits, such as radio detection, etc. The area of "PN junction" of surface contact diode is large, which allows large currents passing through and is mainly used in "rectifying" circuits that convert AC to DC.    --  Planar diode is a kind of special silicon diode. It not only can pass through large current, but also has stable and reliable performance. It is widely used in switching, pulse and high frequency circuits.   II How does a diode work? The crystal diode is a p-n junction formed by p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor. It forms a space charge layer on both sides of the interface and has a self-built electric field. When there is no applied voltage, the diffusion current caused by the carrier concentration difference on both sides of the p-n junction is equal to the drift current caused by the self-built electric field, so it is in an electric equilibrium state. When the external positive voltage is biased, the mutual suppression of the external electric field and the self-built electric field results in the increase of the carrier diffusion current, which is shown in the conduction region below. When the external reverse voltage is biased, the external electric field and the self-built electric field are further strengthened to form a reverse saturation current I0 independent of the reverse bias voltage value within a certain reverse voltage range, which is shown in the cut-off region below. When the applied reverse voltage is high enough to a certain extent, the electric field intensity in the space charge layer of p-n junction reaches the critical value to produce the multiplying process of the carriers, resulting in a large number of electron hole pairs and a numerical reverse breakdown current is generated, known as the diode breakdown, which is shown in the breakdown region below. III What is diode characteristics? The most important characteristic of the diode is the unidirectional conductivity. In the circuit, the current can only flow from the positive electrode of the diode, and flows out from the negative electrode . The forward and reverse characteristics of the diode are illustrated by simple experiments.   3.1 Forward characteristics In electronic circuits, if the diode is connected to the high potential terminal and the negative electrode to the low potential terminal, the diode will be switched on. This connection is called forward bias. It must be noted that when the forward voltage applied to both ends of the diode is very small, the diode still cannot be switched on, and the forward current flowing through the diode is very weak. Only when the forward voltage reaches a certain value (about 0.6 V of the silicon tube) can the diode be truly switched on. The voltage at both ends of the diode after conduction is called the forward voltage drop of the diode.   3.2 Reverse characteristic In the electronic circuit, the positive end of the diode is connected to the low potential end, the negative electrode is connected to the high potential terminal, and the diode is in the cutoff state. This mode of connection is called reverse bias. When the diode is in reverse bias, there will still be a weak reverse current flowing through the diode, called leakage current. When the reverse voltage of the diode increases to a certain value, the reverse current will increase sharply, and the diode will lose the single direction conduction characteristic. This state is called the breakdown of diode.   IV What are diode parameters? The technical specifications used to test the performance of diodes are called diode parameters. Here are some of the main parameters in diode testing:   4.1 Rated forward working current (IF) Refers to the maximum forward current that is allowed to pass through the diode when it is in continuous operation over a long period of time. When a larger current passes through the diode, the dice is heated and the temperature rises, and when the temperature exceeds the allowable limit, the dice is overheated and damaged. Therefore, it should not exceed the diode rated forward operating current value when the diode is in use. Eg. The rated forward working current of DFM is 1A   4.2 Forward Voltage(VF) Refers to the voltage at both ends of the diode when the rated forward working current IF is passed through the diode. Eg. The voltage at both ends of the diode is about 0.9V when the forward working current of DFM is 1A.   4.3 Maximum reverse operating voltage (VR) When the reverse voltage at both ends of the diode is raised to a certain value, the diode will be broken down and the unidirectional conductivity will be lost. In order to ensure the safety of operation, the maximum reverse operating voltage is specified. Eg. The maximum reverse operating voltage of DF10M is 1100V and the breakdown voltage is about 1400V   4.4 Reverse current IR Refers to the reverse current that flows through the diode when the maximum reverse operating voltage VR is applied to both ends of the diode. The smaller the reverse current, the better the unidirectional conductivity of the diode will be. Eg. When the reverse voltage of DF10M is 1100V, the VR is about 0.2uA.   4.5 Reverse critical current (IZ) Refers to the reverse current of the diode increases sharply to close to the breakdown phenomenon.   Eg. Set the IZ of DF10M to 0.1 Ma (Ma) 4.6 Reverse critical voltage (VZ) Refers to the reverse voltage of the diode when the reverse current is IZ. If the reverse voltage is greater than this value, the reverse current increases dramatically and the unidirectional conductivity of the diode is destroyed, thus causing reverse breakdown. Eg. The VZ is about 1300V when IZ of DF10M is 0.1mA.   4.7 Reverse recovery time (Trr) When diodes are in low frequency applications, it generally do not need to consider its conduction to the cut-off, or cut-off to the transition time. But if the diode works in a high-speed switching circuit environment, when diode suddenly turns to reverse bias from the forward biased conduction state, it will take a certain time to become a cut-off state, which is called reverse recovery time. But if the diode works in a high-speed switching circuit environment, when diode suddenly turns to reverse bias from the forward biased conduction state, it will take a certain time to become a cut-off state, which is called reverse recovery time. Eg. The maximum Trr of EDF1DM is 50nS.   V What are the types of diodes?   5.1 Light emitting diode Light emitting diode, also called LED, is a semiconductor diode that converts electrical energy into luminous energy. Like ordinary diodes, LEDs are made up of a PN junction and have unidirectional conductivity. When a forward voltage is applied to a light-emitting diode, Holes injected from P region to N region and electrons injected from N region to P region are recombined with N region electrons and P region holes in several microns near PN junction to produce spontaneous emission fluorescence.    The energy states of electrons and holes in different semiconductor materials are different. When electrons and holes are combined, the energy released is different. The more energy is released, the shorter the wavelength of light is. The commonly used diodes are red, green or yellow light.The reverse breakdown voltage of a light-emitting diode is greater than 5 volts. Its forward volt-ampere characteristic curve is so steep that it must be used in series to control the current passing through the diode. The current limiting resistance R can be calculated by the following formula: R=（E－UF）/IF . In this formula, E is the power supply voltage, UF is the forward voltage of LED, IF is the running current of LED.   5.2 Zener diode Zener diode, is also called voltage stabilizing diode. By using the reverse breakdown state of pn junction, the current can be changed in a wide range and the voltage is basically unchanged, thus form a diode which has voltage stabilizing function. This diode is a semiconductor device with high resistance until it reaches the critical reverse breakdown voltage.  The following picture is a typical Zener diode application circuit diagram: At this critical breakdown point, the reverse resistance is reduced to a very small value, where the current increases and the voltage remains constant in this low resistance region, and the Zener diode is divided according to the breakdown voltage, because of this characteristic, The regulator is mainly used as a voltage regulator or voltage reference element. Zener diodes can be connected in series for use at higher voltages, and higher stable voltages can be obtained by serializing them.   5.3 Switching diode  Working principle: The semiconductor diode is equivalent to switch-on when it is turned on (the circuit is turned on), and is equivalent to switch-off when it is turn-off (the circuit is cut off), so the diode can be used as a switch. The common used model is 1N4148. Due to the unidirectional conductivity of semiconductor diodes, the PN junction is on at positive bias, and the resistance is very small at the on-state, which ranges from tens to hundreds of ohs. At reverse bias, it is in a cut-off state, and its resistance is very large. Generally, silicon diodes are above 10 μ Ω and germanium diodes have tens to hundreds of kilos. By using this property, the diode will play the role of controlling the current on or off in the circuit and become an ideal electronic switch.   At high frequency, the barrier capacitance of the diode exhibits extremely low impedance and is parallel to the diode. When the capacitance of the barrier itself reaches a certain level, the switching performance of the diode will be seriously affected. In extreme conditions, the diode will be short-circuited, and the high-frequency current will no longer pass through the diode, but will pass directly through the barrier capacitance, and the diode will fail to work. The barrier capacitance of the switching diode is generally small, which is equivalent to blocking the barrier capacitance path and achieving the effect of maintaining good unidirectional conductivity at high frequency.  Classification: General switching diode, high speed switching diodes, ultra-high speed switching diodes, low-power switching diodes, high reverse voltage switching diodes, silicon voltage switching diodes and so on.   5.4 Variable capacitance diode( Varactor Diodes ) Variable capacitance diode, also known as varactor Diodes, are semiconductors that change the junction capacitance according to the voltage supplied. That is, as variable capacitors, they can be used in resonant circuits such as FM tuners and TV tuners and FM modulation circuits. Working principle: Varactor Diodes is a kind of special diode. When applied forward bias voltage, the depletion region of PN (positive and negative electrode) junction is narrowed and the capacitance becomes larger, which results in diffusive capacitance effect. However, the leakage current will be generated when the forward bias is added, so the reverse bias is supplied in application. In fact, we can think of it as a PN junction. If a reverse voltage V is added to the PN junction (the varactor diode is used in reverse direction), the electrons in the N-type semiconductor are directed to the positive electrode and holes in P-type semiconductor will be led to the negative electrode. Then forms a depletion layer that has neither electrons nor holes, and the width of the depletion layer is set to d, which changes with the reverse voltage V. In this way, when the reverse voltage V increases, the depletion layer d becomes wider and the diode capacitance C decreases (according to C=kS/d), and the reverse voltage decreases, the depletion layer width d becomes narrower and the diode capacity becomes larger. The change of reverse voltage V leads to the change of depletion layer, which changes the junction capacity of the variable capacitance diode. - Application: the varactor diode is a semiconductor device based on the principle of variable capacitance between PN junctions. It is used as a variable capacitor in high frequency tuning and communication circuits. As shown in the following figure, the reverse voltage of the diode is changed by changing the different R2. This will result in a change in the capacitance of the diode, thus changing the resonant frequency in which the varactor diode can pull out the full range of the required capacitance in the parallel resonant band-pass filter.   FAQ   1. What is diode and its symbol? Diode, an electrical component that allows the flow of current in only one direction. In circuit diagrams, a diode is represented by a triangle with a line across one vertex.   2. What is special about a diode? Some semiconductor junctions, composed of special chemical combinations, emit radiant energy within the spectrum of visible light as the electrons change energy levels. Simply put, these junctions glow when forward biased. A diode intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-emitting diode, or LED.   3. Are diodes AC or DC? It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts current from flowing in the opposite direction. Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change alternating current (ac) into pulsating direct current (dc). Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and current capacity.   4. Why do we use zener diode? Zener diodes are used for voltage regulation, as reference elements, surge suppressors, and in switching applications and clipper circuits. The load voltage equals breakdown voltage VZ of the diode. The series resistor limits the current through the diode and drops the excess voltage when the diode is conducting.   5. What is unit of diode? A diode is not a measurable quantity. Hence,it does not have a unit. Generally,for a diode,we measure characteristics like forward voltage drop,reverse voltage drop and reverse breakdown voltage which are usually measured in Volts.   6. Do diodes have resistance? Just like a resistor or any other load in a circuit, a diode offers resistance in a circuit. Unlike resistors, though, diodes are not linear devices. This means that the resistance of diodes does not vary directly and proportional to the amount of voltage and current applied to them.   7. Does diode reduce current? Ideally, diodes will block any and all current flowing the reverse direction, or just act like a short-circuit if current flow is forward. Unfortunately, actual diode behavior isn't quite ideal. Diodes do consume some amount of power when conducting forward current, and they won't block out all reverse current.   8. How are diodes classified? Diodes are classified according to their characteristics and are offered in a number of different types, including rectifiers, switching diodes, Schottky barrier diodes, Zener (constant voltage) diodes, and diodes designed for high-frequency applications.   9. What is the most common diode? The most commonly used signal diode is the 1N4148. This diode has a close brother called 1N914 that can be used in its place if you can't find a 1N4148. This diode has a forward-voltage drop of 0.7 and a peak inverse voltage of 100 V, and can carry a maximum of 200 mA of current.   10. What is the difference between a Zener diode and a Schottky diode? As their switching speed is very high, Schottky diodes recover very fast when the current reverses, resulting in only a very small reverse current overshoot. ... A special type of diode, called the Zener diode, blocks the current through it up to a certain voltage when reverse biased.   11. What is difference between Schottky diode and normal diode? In the normal rectifier grade PN junction diode, the junction is formed between P type semiconductor to N type semiconductor. Whereas in Schottky diode the junction is in between N type semiconductor to Metal plate. The schottky barrier diode has electrons as majority carriers on both sides of the junction.   12. Why it is called diode? A diode is called a diode because it has two distinct electrodes (i.e. terminals), called the anode and the cathode. A diode is electrically asymmetric because current can flow freely from the anode to the cathode, but not in the other direction. In this way, it functions as a one-way valve for current.   13. Is a diode the same as a resistor? Key Difference: A diode is a type of electrical device that allows the current to move through it in only one direction. ... A resistor is an electric component that is used to provide resistance to current in the circuit. They are mostly used to produce heat or light.   14. How much voltage can a diode take? Silicon diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.7 volts. Germanium diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.3 volts. The maximum reverse-bias voltage that a diode can withstand without “breaking down” is called the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV rating.   15. Can a resistor replace a diode? Diodes only conduct in one direction whereas resistors conduct in both directions. Without analyzing the actual circuit the results would be unpredictable but, generally speaking, being that diodes & resistors are designed to do different things, substituting one for the other is something you wouldn't want to do.  

Warm hints: The word in this article is about 2500 and  reading time is about 12 minutes. The fiber optic sensor consists of the light source, incident fiber, exit fiber, light modulator, light detector, and demodulator. The basic principle is that the light of the light source is sent to the modulation area through the incident optical fiber, and the light interacts with the measured parameters in the modulation area to change the optical property of the light into the modulated signal light which is then sent through the outgoing fiber optical detector, demodulator and get the measured parameters. In recent years, sensors have evolved in the direction of sensitivity, precision, adaptability, compactness, and intelligence.  Optical fiber has many excellent properties, such as anti-electromagnetic interference and atomic radiation performance, soft and lightweight mechanical properties. Insulation, non-responsive electrical properties. Water, heat, and corrosion resistance of chemical properties, can reach people's eyes and ears in unattainable places (such as high-temperature areas), or in areas harmful to humans (such as nuclear radiation area), but also can transcend human physiological boundaries and receive sensory organs Unexpected outside information.   Catalogs I. Basic Structure and Principle of Fiber Optic SensorII. Application of Light Sensor in Petrochemical Industry2.1 The application of fiber optic sensor in the   petrochemical system2.2 The application of fiber optic sensor in oil   loggingIII. Application of Fiber Optic Sensors in Power Systems3.1 Applications in the high voltage cable temperature   and strain measurement3.2 Application in Electric Power Sensors3.3 Application of optical fiber cable monitoringIV. Fiber Optic Sensors in Medical Applications4.1 Pressure measurement4.2 Blood flow velocity measurement4.3 PH measurementV. Fiber Optic Sensor FeaturesFAQ  I. Basic Structure and Principle of Fiber Optic Sensor The fiber optic sensor consists of the light source, incident fiber, exit fiber, light modulator, light detector, and demodulator. The basic principle is that the light of the light source is sent to the modulation area via the incident fiber, and the light interacts with the measured parameters in the modulation area to make the optical properties (such as intensity, wavelength, frequency, phase, and normality) of the light occur Changes into a modulated signal light, and then sent through the optical fiber into the optical detector, demodulator to obtain the measured parameters. Fiber optic sensors can be divided into two categories by sensing principle: one is the light transmission (non-functional type) sensor, the other is the sensor type (functional) sensor. In the fiber optic sensor, the optical fiber only as a light transmission medium, the measured signal is detected by other sensitive components, this exit fiber, and the incident optical fiber is not continuous. Between the two Modulators are spectrally sensitive or other types of sensitive elements. In the sensing type fiber optic sensor, the optical fiber has both the sensitivity to the signal to be measured and the transmission of the optical signal. And the "sense" and "pass" of the signal are combined so that the optical fiber in such a sensor is continuous. Due to the different roles played by the optical fibers in these two sensors, the requirements for the optical fibers are also different. Optical fiber in the light-transmitting sensor only plays the role of light transmission. The use of communication fiber even ordinary multi-mode fiber can meet the requirements, and sensitive components can be a very flexible selection of high-quality materials. So the sensitivity of these sensors needs more optical coupling devices, the structure is more complex. The structure of sensing type fiber optic sensor is relatively simple with fewer coupling devices, but higher requirements on the optical fiber. It often needs to be sensitive to signal measurement, with good transmission characteristics. So far, most people adopt the former, but with the improvement of optical fiber manufacturing technology, sensor-type fiber optic sensors will also be widely used. According to the principle of light being modulated in optical fiber, fiber optic sensors can be divided into intensity modulation, phase modulation, polarization modulation, frequency modulation, wavelength modulation, and so on. Up to now, optical sensors have been able to measure more than 70 physical quantities. Fiber Optic Sensors have unique advantages over traditional sensors. (1) High sensitivity. Since light is a very short wavelength electromagnetic wave, its optical length is obtained by the phase of light. Taking an optical fiber interferometer as an example, due to the small diameter of the fiber used, its optical length is subject to slight mechanical external force or temperature change, causing a large phase change. Suppose that with a 10-meter optical fiber, a change of 1 ° C causes a phase change of 1000ard. If the minimum phase change that can be detected is 0.01ard, the minimum change in temperature that can be measured is 10 ° C, showing a high sensitivity. (2) Anti-electromagnetic interference, electrical insulation, corrosion resistance, intrinsically safe. Since fiber optic sensors transmit information using light waves, optical fibers are an electrically insulating, corrosion-resistant transmission medium and safe, which makes it easy and effective to use All kinds of large electromechanical, petrochemical, mine and other strong electromagnetic interference and flammable and explosive and other harsh environments. (3) Fast measurement. Light travels fastest and can transmit two-dimensional information, so it can be used for high-speed measurements. The analysis of radar and other signals requires an extremely high detection rate. The application of electronics is difficult to achieve. Using high-speed spectral analysis of light diffraction can be solved. (4) Large information capacity. The signal under test is a light wave carrier, and the light has a very high frequency. The contained frequency band is very wide. The same optical fiber can transmit multiple signals. (5) Suitable for harsh environments. Optical fiber is a dielectric, high voltage, corrosion-resistant, anti-electromagnetic interference that can be used for other sensors that do not adapt to the harsh environment. In addition, fiber-optic sensors are also characterized by their lightweight, small size, flexibility, wide measurement range, good reusability, and low cost. The application of fiber optic sensors is precise because fiber optic sensors have so many advantages, making it a very wide range of applications, involving petrochemicals, power, medicine, civil engineering, and many other fields. Video 1 Introduction of fiber optic sensorsII. Application of Light Sensor in Petrochemical Industry 2.1 The application of fiber optic sensor in the petrochemical systemIn the petrochemical system, due to the underground environment with high temperature, high pressure, chemical corrosion and electromagnetic interference, and other characteristics, the conventional sensor is difficult to play a role in the well. However, the fiber itself is no charge, small and light, easy to bend, anti-electromagnetic interference, and anti-radiation performance. Particularly it is suitable for flammable and explosive, strict restrictions and strong electromagnetic interference, and other harsh environments. Fiber optic sensors in the measurement of the good parameters play an irreplaceable role. It will become the oil and gas exploration and oil logging and other logging A field of broad market prospects of new technologies.  Fiber optic sensor application in oil and gas exploration. Because of its high-temperature capability, multi-communications, distributed sensing capabilities, and the fact that it requires only a small space to meet its use conditions, fiber optic sensors make it particularly unique in exploration drilling. The application of fiber optic sensors can be made into the downhole spectrometer, distributed temperature sensor, and optical fiber pressure sensor, and other products suitable for this special job requirement. (1) The downhole spectrometer fluid analyzer shown in Figure 1 can be used to understand the crude oil composition during the initial development process. It consists of two sensors: one is the absorption spectroscopy fiber and the other is the fluorescence and gas detector. Downhole fluid is introduced into the tubing by formation probes and the optical sensor is used to analyze the fluid within the tubing. Fluid analysis spectrometers provide in-situ downhole fluid analysis and improve formation fluid evaluation. (2) Distributed temperature sensors. Optical fiber distributed temperature sensors are the most popular fiber optic sensors for downhole applications. The application example is to monitor the steam injection heavy oil recovery system. Steam is injected into the heavy oil reservoir to reduce the viscosity of the oil, allowing heavy oil to be mined out. Downhole steam temperature can be as high as 250 ℃. Figure 1 Fluid analyzer structure(3) The fiber-optic pressure sensor is currently under development. Its main focus is on ultra-high temperature and downhole pressure monitoring tasks. Other commercial products based on fiber optic sensors are currently available. For example, fiber optic probes for multiphase flow measurements and distributed dynamic strain measurements. Its high reliability, high efficiency, and low power consumption are key factors in the success of optical fiber products in oil field applications. 2.2 The application of fiber optic sensor in oil loggingOil logging is one of the most basic and key aspects of the petroleum industry. The parameters such as pressure, temperature, and flow rate are important physical quantities in oil and gas wells. These advanced technologies are used for long-term Real-time monitoring, timely access to the information of oil and gas wells, the oil industry has a very important significance. Fiber optic sensors are insensitive to electromagnetic interference and withstand extreme conditions, including high temperatures and pressures, as well as strong shock and vibration, to measure borehole and well site environmental parameters with high accuracy, and have distributed measurement capabilities for fiber optic sensors. The spatial distribution gives the profile information. Moreover, the fiber optic sensor cross-sectional area is small, short in shape, in the wellbore occupies a very small space. Traditional electronic sensors do not have such features in the harsh underground environment. Fiber optic sensors can do downhole flow measurement, temperature measurement, pressure measurement, water (gas) measurement, density measurement, acoustic measurement. (1) Flow measurement. Because the intensity, phase, frequency, wavelength, and other characteristics of light in the optical fiber transmission process will be subject to flow modulation. A certain light detection method can convert the modulation into electrical signals, you can find the fluid flow, which is the fiber flow the working principle of the meter. (2) Temperature and pressure measurement. The distributed optical fiber measurement system (DTS) utilizes the Raman effect of the optical fiber to enable real-time monitoring of the temperature field where the fiber is located. The EFPI type (non-intrinsic FP interference) and FBG fiber optic sensors are wavelength-coded sensors. With high sensitivity, it also can simultaneously measure pressure, temperature, stress, and other parameters of the characteristics. The optical fiber thermal color temperature sensor is a reflective temperature sensor composed of a white light source and a multi-mode optical fiber.  The optical fiber radiation temperature sensor utilizes black body radiation energy. Its non-contact, measurable instantaneous temperature, fast response, and no need for heat balance time are available. In high-temperature measurement, the semiconductor absorption-type optical fiber temperature sensor utilizes the characteristic that the absorption edge wavelength of its semiconductor material shifts to a longer wavelength as the temperature increases, and an appropriate semiconductor light-emitting diode is selected so that its spectral range falls exactly on the absorption edge region. , So the light intensity through the semiconductor decreases with increasing temperature. (3)Water (Gas) Rate and transmission power of U-shaped fiber used for density measurement vary with the refractive index of the external medium. The lightwave serves as an information carrier and has nothing to do with the resistivity, flow pattern, and water quality of the mixed fluid. The fiber holding rate is based on this principle. The density sensor essentially solves the problem of the application of high water content without resolution and radioactive substances in the existing holding ratios. For the multi-phase fluids, the refractive indices of oil, water, and gas are all different, so the refractive index of the mixed fluid will follow. Change the ratio of oil, water, gas changes. Therefore, this refractive index modulation type fiber optic sensor can not only measure the fluid holding rate, fluid density can be measured at the same time, for its accuracy is higher. (4) Sonic measurement. Seismic waves propagate in different media and the waveforms of the received seismic waves will be different. According to different seismic waveforms, the sedimentary sequence and sedimentary structure can be identified to locate the reservoir, determine the gutter, detect the damage and fracture of the casing, and perforation, detect layers and determine the fluid flow, and so on. VSP seismic logging means that the geophone is placed in a well and the seismic signal is received by the geophone in the well by means of a micro-vibration generated by ground-derived seismic waves or fluid flow in the well.  The permanent downhole optical fiber three-component seismic survey has high sensitivity and directionality can produce high-precision spatial images. It can not only provide near-borehole images but also can provide strata images around the wellbore. And the measurement range can reach thousands of kilometers. It withstands harsh environmental conditions and has no moving parts and downhole electronics that can withstand strong shocks and vibrations and Can be installed in an extremely small space for complex completion string.  III. Application of Fiber Optic Sensors in Power Systems Because of the complicated structure and wide distribution of power system networks, various hidden dangers exist on the high-voltage power line and power communication network. Therefore, it is very important for distributed monitoring of various lines and networks in the system.  3.1 Applications in the high voltage cable temperature and strain measurementAt present, foreign countries (mainly Britain, Japan, etc.) have developed the distributed optical fiber temperature sensor products by utilizing the laser Raman spectroscopy effect. And domestically, we are actively carrying out research work in this area. The domestic begin to introduce the distributed optical fiber temperature sensing technology into the power system cable temperature measurement. In connection with the snow disasters suffered in southern China last year, we can consider that if we can lay sensor fiber optic cables in parallel on high-voltage cables and measure the temperature, pressure, and other parameters of power system cables and towers in real-time, we can make timely measurements, so as to minimize economic losses.  Fiber optic sensors in the power system will have a wide range of applications. Ideally, the fiber should be placed as close as possible to the cable core to more accurately measure the actual cable temperature. For direct-buried power cables, although the surface-mount fiber can not accurately reflect the change of cable load, it is more sensitive to the change of thermal resistivity of soil in the buried cable and can reduce the installation cost of optical fiber. 3.2 Application in electric power sensorsElectric power is the basic power reflecting the energy conversion and transmission in the power system. Electric power measurement is an important part of power metering. With the rapid development of the power industry, traditional electromagnetic measurement methods have increasingly exposed their inherent limitations, such as electrical insulation, electromagnetic interference, and magnetic saturation.  Therefore, people have been working hard to find new methods for measuring electrical power. It can be said that the advent of fiber optic sensors has brought people the gospel to solve this problem. The main characteristics of fiber-optic power sensors are: Since electric power sensing involves both voltage and current at the same time, it is usually necessary to consider both electro-optic and magneto-optic effects. At the same time, two kinds of sensing media or one multifunctional media are used as sensitive elements. The structure of the fiber electric power sensor head is relatively complicated; the optical sensor signal of the fiber electric power sensor sometimes includes voltage and current signals at the same time, so the signal detection and processing methods thereof will also be more complicated. 3.3  Application of optical fiber cable monitoringIn Power Systems The power system has a wide variety of optical cables. In addition, China has a vast area and the environment varies widely. Therefore, the environment of optical cables is also very complex. Temperature and stress are the main environmental factors that affect the performance of optical cables. Therefore, while monitoring the breakpoint of the optical fiber, the temperature and stress conditions of the optical cable are also monitored. It can be seen that the optical fiber cable has far-reaching fault warning and maintenance.  By measuring the frequency shift and intensity of the Brillouin scattered light along the length of the optical fiber, the temperature and strain information of the optical fiber can be obtained, and the sensing distance is relatively long, so it has far-reaching engineering research value. Based on Brillouin Optical Time Domain Reflectance (BOTDR) distributed optical fiber sensing system, using coherent detection technology, the system principle shown in Figure 2.  Figure 2 based on BOTDR sensing system principleThe BOTDR fiber sensing system measures the self-distribution of scattering signals of an optical fiber and its signal strength is very weak, but the coherent detection technology can be used to improve the signal-noise ratio of the system. This solution can be a single light source, single-ended work, the system is simple and easy to implement, and can simultaneously detect fiber breakpoints, loss, temperature, and strain.  IV. Fiber Optic Sensors in Medical Applications In medical fiber, sensors are mainly light-transmitting. With its small size, insulation, non-radio frequency, and microwave interference, high measurement accuracy and good affinity with living organisms, and other advantages. This article will mainly introduce the application of transmission optical fiber in pressure measurement, blood flow velocity measurement, and pH measurement. In addition, it can also be applied to the measurement of temperature and medical image transmission. 4.1 Pressure measurementCurrent clinically applied pressure sensors are mainly used to measure intravascular blood pressure, intracranial pressure, intracardiac pressure, bladder, and urethral pressure. The pressure sensor used to measure blood pressure is schematically shown in Figure3. The pressure-sensitive part is a water-repellent film on the sidewall of the tip of the probe catheter connected to the membrane by a cantilever micromirror and an optical fiber opposite the reflector for transmitting incident light to the reflector while The reflected light is also transmitted.  When there is pressure on the film, the film is deformed and can drive the cantilever to change the angle of the mirror. The light beam coming from the fiber is shone on the mirror and then reflected at the end of the fiber. Since the direction of the reflected light changes with the angle of the mirror, the intensity of the reflected light received by the optical fiber also varies. This change passes through the optical fiber to the other end of the photodetector into an electrical signal, so that by changing the voltage to know the size of the probe at the pressure.Figure 3 Optical fiber pressure gauge probe 4.2 Blood flow velocity measurement Doppler-type optical fiber speed sensor measurement of subcutaneous tissue flow velocity shown in Figure 4, this device uses the optical fiber end reflection phenomenon, the measurement system is simple in structure.Figure 4 optical fiber pressure gauge probeLaser light with a frequency of f passes through the lens and the fiber is sent to the epidermal tissue. For immobile tissue, such as the vessel wall, the reflected light does not produce a frequency shift; and for the red blood cells in the cortex capillary flow rate, the reflected light to produce a frequency shift, the frequency change △ f. The frequency shift of the reflected light The intensity is proportional to the concentration of erythrocytes and the change in frequency can be proportional to the velocity of erythrocytes. Emitted light collected by the optical fiber, the first on the light detector for mixing, and then into the signal processing instrument, which get the red blood cell velocity and concentration. 4.3 PH measurementA schematic diagram of the pH fiber optic sensor used to determine tissue and blood values is shown in Figure 4. Its working principle is the use of emission light, the intensity of transmitted light with the wavelength distribution of the spectrum to be measured. The sensor inserts two optical fibers into an ion-permeable cellulose capsule containing reagent, which penetrates the reagent when the needle is inserted into the tissue or blood vessel, causing the reagent to absorb light of a certain wavelength. Measured such changes, you can get the blood or tissue pH.Figure 5 Determination of pH fiber spectrometerV. Fiber Optic Sensor Features 1.High sensitivity. 2.The geometry has a wide range of adaptability, can be made into any shape of the fiber optic sensor. 3.You can create sensors sensing a variety of different physical information (sound, magnetic, temperature, rotation, etc.) of the device. 4.Can be used for high voltage, electrical noise, high temperature, corrosion, or other harsh environments. 5.But also with the inherent compatibility of optical telemetry technology. The advantages of fiber-optic sensors are that optical fiber sensors use light as a carrier for sensitive information, and use optical fibers as a medium for transmitting sensitive information. Compared with conventional sensors. They have the characteristics of optical fiber and optical measurement and have a series of unique advantages. Good electrical insulation, anti-electromagnetic interference, non-invasive, high sensitivity, easy to achieve long-distance monitoring of the signal under test, corrosion resistance, explosion-proof, flexible optical path, easy to connect with the computer. Sensors are developed in the direction of sensitivity, precision, adaptability, compactness, and intelligence. They can serve as human eyes and ears where people cannot reach(such as high-temperature areas, are as harmful to humans, or nuclear radiation areas). But it is also beyond the physical boundaries of human beings, outsiders can not feel the sensory information. FAQ 1. How does a fiber optic sensor work?Fiber optic sensors work based on the principle that light from a laser or any superluminescent source is transmitted via an optical fiber, experiences changes in its parameters either in the optical fiber or fiber Bragg gratings and reaches a detector which measures these changes. 2. What are fiber optic sensors used for?Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. 3.How are fiber optic sensors classified?Based on the operating principle or modulation and demodulation process, a optical fiber sensor can be classified as intensity, a phase, a frequency, or a polarization sensor. All these parameters may be subject to change due to external perturbations. ... These sensors are widely used as chemical sensors. 4. What is active and passive optical fiber sensor?Active fibre optic. -In optical fiber communication, because the signal usually decades during long distance transformation, you need to add an amplifier to boost the signal. Passive fibre optic. - Simply receive light data from the environment, it is commonly used for illumination (Fiber optical lighting. 5. What are the characteristics of optical fiber sensors?Optical fiber sensors have unique advantages, such as high sensitivity, immunity to electromagnetic interference, small size, light weight, robustness, flexibility, and the ability to provide multiplexed or distributed sensing. 6. Which is a use of fiber optics?They are widely used in lighting, both in the interior and exterior of vehicles. Because of its ability to conserve space and provide superior lighting, fiber optics is used in more vehicles every day. Also, fiber optic cables can transmit signals between different parts of the vehicle at very fast speed. 7. Why optical fiber is used for communication?Optical fiber is used by telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, Internet communication and cable television signals. ... Due to lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has advantages over copper wire in long-distance, high-bandwidth applications. 8. Is fiber optic WIFI?Like any Internet service, fiber optic Internet download speeds depend on your connection. Not all fiber services are created equal, much like broadband. ... You can download more, faster, with fiber. Fiber Internet is more reliable than copper and less 'patchy' than Wifi. 9. Is fiber optic analog or digital?Digital signals can be transmitted long distances without degradation as the signal is less sensitive to noise. Fiber optic datalinks can be either analog or digital in nature, although most are digital. Both have some common critical parameters and some major differences. 10. How much data can a fiber optic cable transmit?A new fiber-optic system can carry 800 gigabits of data per second, a big step up from top speeds of 100 or 200 gigabits in today's data centers. You May Also Like:GPS and inertial sensors for driverless applicationsA New Technology for Advancing Opticals,Sensors Even Resistant SupercapacitorsSensors are Always In a State of Rapid Progress

Warm hints: The word in this article is about 2800 words and  reading time is about 15 minutes.     Lithium-ion batteries can be said to be the most mature and widely used new energy sources in the world at present, such as portable electronic products like mobile phones and computers, electric vehicles, electric tools, and energy storage projects. Especially the current Chinese government and other countries are investing to support the development of new energy vehicles and power battery industries. Looking ahead, the lithium industry has a long way to go, such as the development of high energy density systems. The problems of further reduction of cost, the resources recovery, and the utilization are in front of us.   This article will mainly explain what is a lithium battery, then introduce the current situation and future development of lithium-ion battery materials.       Catalog I. What is A Lithium Battery? II. How Does the Lithium Battery Work? III. Distinction Between Lithium-ion Battery & Polymer Lithium Battery IV. Types and Characteristics of Material Used in Lithium Batteries V. Application of Lithium Battery VI. Future Development of Lithium Battery FAQ I. What is A Lithium Battery?   "Lithium battery" is a kind of battery that takes lithium metal or lithium alloy as negative electrode material and using a non-aqueous electrolyte solution. In 1912, lithium-metal batteries were first proposed and studied by Gilbert N. Lewis. In the 1970s, M.S. Whittingham proposed and began to study lithium-ion batteries.   Because of the active chemical characteristics of lithium metal, the environmental requirements of the processing, preservation, and use of lithium metal are very high. Therefore, lithium batteries have not been applied for a long time. With the development of science and technology, lithium batteries have become the mainstream now.   Lithium batteries can be roughly divided into two categories: lithium metal batteries and lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries do not contain metallic lithium and are rechargeable. The fifth generation of rechargeable lithium metal batteries was born in 1996. Its safety, specific capacity, self-discharge rate, and the ratio of performance to price are superior to those of lithium-ion batteries, which are now produced by a few companies in only a few countries due to their own high-tech constraints.   Li-ion batteries are secondary battery system in which two different kinds of lithium intercalated compounds that can be inserted and removed as positive and negative electrodes respectively. When charged, lithium-ions are removed from the lattice of cathode materials. After the electrolyte is inserted into the lattice of the anode material, the negative electrode is rich in lithium, and the positive electrode is poor in lithium.   When discharged, the lithium-ion is removed from the lattice of the anode material, and then inserted into the lattice of the positive electrode material after the electrolyte, so that the positive electrode material is extremely rich in lithium while the negative electrode is poor in lithium. In this way, the difference between the potential of the cathode material and the lithium-ion when inserted and removed from the lithium metal is the working voltage of the battery.   Li-ion battery is a new generation of green high-energy battery with excellent performance and has become one of the key points in the development of high-tech.   Li-ion battery has the following characteristics: high voltage, high capacity, low consumption, no memory effect, no pollution, small volume, small internal resistance, less self-discharge, and more cycle times.   Because of the above characteristics, the lithium-ion battery has been applied to many civil and military fields, such as mobile phones, notebooks computers, cameras, digital cameras, and so on.   II. How Does the Lithium Battery Work?   The charging and discharging process of lithium battery is realized by the removal and embedding of lithium-ion in the positive and negative electrode of the battery. The reaction equation of the lithium-ion battery with iron phosphate liquid as an example is as follows:   Charging: Discharging:   The electrode reaction of Li/PEO-LiClO4/Pan polymer lithium-ion battery is as follows:   Positive electrode reaction: Negative electrode reaction： The working schematic diagram of lithium battery: Schematic-of-the-lithium-ion-battery-working-principle   1. The positive electrode structure:  LiMn2O4( lithium manganate ) + Conductive agent (acetylene black) + adhesive(PVDF) + Collector negative ( aluminium foil )electrode   2. The negative electrode structure:  Graphite+ Conductive agent (acetylene black) + adhesive(PVDF) + Collector negative ( copper foil )electrode   3. Charging process: The battery is charged by the power supply, and the electron e on the positive electrode runs from the external circuit to the negative electrode. Positive lithium-ion Li+ "jumps" from the positive electrode to the electrolyte, "climb" through the winding hole in the diaphragm, then "swim" to the negative electrode and combine with the electron.    The reaction on the positive electrode is: LiMn2O4 ==Li1-xMn2O4+Xli++Xe (electron).  The reaction on the negative electrode is:  6C+XLi+Xe==LixC6   4. Discharging process When the battery discharges, the electron e on the negative electrode runs from the external circuit to the positive electrode. Positive lithium-ion Li+ "jumps" from the negative electrode to the electrolyte, "climb" through the winding hole in the diaphragm, then "swim" to the positive electrode and combine with the electron.    The reaction on the positive electrode is: Li1-xMn2O4+xli++xe (electron) ==LiMn2O4 The reaction on the negative electrode is: LixC6 == 6C+xLi+xe III. Distinction Between Lithium-ion Battery & Polymer Lithium Battery   As the following table: Electrolyte for Polymer Lithium Battery PolymerElectrolytePure solid polymer electrolyteGel polymer electrolytePAn, PPY, PA, PPPPEO, PPOPAN,PMMA,PVdF   As the following diagram: Different electrolytes are the main differences between lithium-ion batteries and polymer lithium batteries. Diagram IV. Types and Characteristics of Material Used in Lithium Batteries (This is a tutorial on the Lithium Battery Explorer provides an overview of Li-ion battery technology and the properties that are relevant to battery researchers.)   1.Lithium manganate (LMO) LMO, as a kind of lithium battery material with a long history, has high safety, especially strong resistance to overcharge, which is a prominent advantage.   Because of the good structural stability of lithium manganate, the amount of cathode material does not have to exceed the negative electrode in the design of the electric core.   In this way, the number of active lithium ions in the whole system is small, and after the negative electrode is filled, there will not be too many lithium ions in the positive electrode. Even if overcharge occurs, there will not be a large number of lithium ions deposited in the negative electrode to form crystallization. Therefore, the overcharge resistance of lithium manganate is the best in common materials.   In addition, its material price is low, and the production process requirements are relatively low. It is a relatively early widely used cathode material.   But it also has obvious defects. The elevated temperature property of spinel lithium manganese oxide is poor. The existence of oxygen defect makes the core prone to capacity decay at the high voltage stage, at the same time, the cycle use at high temperature would cause a similar capacity decay. The reason is that the trivalent manganese ion which causes the disproportionation effect. The main way to prevent high-temperature attenuation is to reduce the trivalent manganese.   Lithium manganese, limited by its high-temperature performance, is generally not used in high-power or high-temperature environments, such as high-speed passenger vehicles, plug-in cars, and so on. But for electric buses, local logistics vehicles, and so on, lithium manganese is completely competent.     2. Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) The advantages of lithium iron phosphate are mainly reflected in its safety and cycle life. The main determinants are the olivine structure of lithium iron phosphate, which, on the one hand, leads to the lower ion diffusion capacity of lithium iron phosphate. On the other hand, it also has good high-temperature stability and good cycle performance.   The disadvantages of lithium iron phosphate are also obvious, such as low energy density, poor consistency, and poor low-temperature performance.     a) The low energy density is determined by the chemical properties of the material itself. A lithium iron phosphate macro-molecule can accommodate only one lithium-ion.   b)The consistency, especially poor batch stability, is related to not only the level of production management but also its own chemical properties. Lithium iron phosphate is one of the more difficult materials for the preparation of cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries.   The difficulty of consistency and uniformity in this chemical reaction raises another problem at the same time: The impurity of iron and iron in the lithium iron phosphate material always exists, which brings hidden trouble to the battery.   Lithium iron phosphate battery, because of its high safety, although The energy density part affects its range of use., but it is still the main power lithium battery variety of electric vehicle in our country at present, especially buses involving the safety of a large number of people, the national police enforce the use of lithium iron phosphate batteries.     3.Ternary lithium The ternary lithium cathode material synthesizes the advantages of LiCoO2、LiNiO2 and LiMnO2 and forms a synergistic effect within the same core. It combines three requirements of stability and activity of material structure and lower cost, which is one of the three main cathode materials with the highest energy density. The low-temperature performance is also obviously better than the lithium iron phosphate battery.    The higher the content of Ni in the three elements, the higher the energy density of the core and the lower the safety of the core will be. In practical application, the proportion relation of three kinds of materials in the electric core has been changing with the passage of time. The pursuit of energy density is higher and higher, so the proportion of Ni is higher and higher.   The most mentioned disadvantage of ternary material is safety. During the process of thermal runaway, the side reaction product contains a lot of gas, which greatly improves the risk of accident and the ability to spread.   Secondly, the cycle life of ternary materials is also a bottleneck, which has not reached the level of lithium iron phosphate. Last but not least, due to the special microstructure of ternary materials, it is not suitable for high-pressure compaction operation, thus the popular way to increase the energy density is not applicable to it.   The market share of ternary materials is gradually expanding, mainly driven by the pursuit of vehicle range. To catch up with or even surpass that of fuel vehicles, electric vehicles must have as much power as possible in a limited space.   This makes energy density particularly important. The improvement of the safety performance of the battery itself and the improvement of system monitoring and handling accident capability will also promote the expansion of the lithium ternary battery market.   V. Application of Lithium Battery   1. Lithium Iron Phosphate is the most suitable cathode material for Power Battery   After introducing the Types and characteristics of Lithium batteries above, now we will discuss about the most suitable cathode material for power supply.    Since 1996, when the Japanese NTT first exposed lithium iron phosphate cathode materials of olivine structure, John.B.Goodenough professor at Texas University also reported the characteristics of reversible intercalation and removal of lithium from LiFePO4 in 1997.   Since then, lithium iron phosphate has gradually become one of the low-cost, multi-element, and environmentally friendly cathode materials. Compared with traditional cathode materials, spinel LiMn2O4 of spinel structure and layered LiCoO2, the LiMPO4 of olivine structure is extremely stable.   The bond with oxygen is very strong, it will not explode because of the short circuit, the capacity is up to 170 mAh / g, the raw material is more extensive and the price is lower. Because of the similar structure of LiFePO4 and FePO4, the crystal structure of LiFePO4 has almost no rearrangement after the release/embedding of lithium-ion.   Therefore, LiFePO4 has better cycling performance, lithium-ion can enter and exit freely and can charge and discharge more than 1,000 times. It is also reported that lithium iron phosphate can be modified more than 10,000 times.   According to the following picture: Performance comparison of Lithium batteries with different cathode Materials.   Performance comparison Lithium iron phosphate is the most ideal cathode material at present. In comparison, the biggest problem of LiCoO is that it is easy to explode at a low temperature of 150C, and its cost is high (cobalt price is about 500,000 yuan/ton, and the price of LiCoO containing 60% cobalt will be over 400,000 yuan/ton). Also, it has a short cycle life.   The safety of lithium manganese oxide is much better than that of lithium cobaltate, but the cycle life in a high-temperature environment is even worse than that in a high-temperature environment(500 times).   With the advantages of high discharge power, low cost (about 18.3 million yuan/ton), rapid charging and long cycle life of more than 1000 times, the high stability of high temperature and high heat environment, and the good safety performance, lithium iron phosphate is the most ideal lithium cathode material for power vehicles.   At present, though the lithium iron phosphate battery is developing rapidly in China, there are several problems, including patent hidden trouble, low conductivity, and low capacitance, poor low-temperature performance, and low yield. VI. Future Development of Lithium Battery   Polymer Lithium Battery: one of the Future Development directions In addition to pure solid or gel polymer electrolytes, the principle and charge-discharge process of polymer lithium-ion batteries are consistent with those of liquid lithium-ion batteries.   Polymer lithium battery features include plastic flexible, more stable, safer, and less flammable, longer cycle life, higher energy density, high volume utilization(10-20% higher than lithium-ion batteries), no need to use traditional diaphragm materials, and easier for large scale production.   Polymer electrolyte is a kind of functional polymer material with ionic conductivity in solid-state which is formed by complexation of strong polar polymer and metal salt through acid-base reaction. Pure solid-state electrolyte dissolves lithium salts such as LiPF6, LiClO4, and LiBF4 in polymer bulk such as PEO and PPO as solid solvents. Gel electrolytes are electrolytes in a gel state by mixing more liquid solvents with polymer bulk.   Because there is no liquid flowing in the electrolyte, there is no leakage of the battery, so the problems such as burning and explosives are avoided. In order to reduce the thickness of the battery, a polymer lithium battery is usually packaged with aluminum plastic film with a thickness of only 0.1 mm, so it has a higher specific capacity than the ordinary lithium-ion battery.   FAQ   1. What is the difference between a lithium battery and a lithium ion battery? Lithium batteries feature primary cell construction. This means that they are single-use—or non-rechargeable. Ion batteries, on the other hand, feature secondary cell construction. This means that they can be recharged and used over and over again.   2. What are the disadvantages of lithium ion batteries? Despite its overall advantages, lithium-ion has its drawbacks. It is fragile and requires a protection circuit to maintain safe operation. Built into each pack, the protection circuit limits the peak voltage of each cell during charge and prevents the cell voltage from dropping too low on discharge.   3. Why is lithium ion the best battery? Li-ion batteries are able to be recharged hundreds of times and are more stable. They tend to have a higher energy density, voltage capacity and lower self-discharge rate than other rechargeable batteries. This makes for better power efficiency as a single cell has longer charge retention than other battery types.   4. What is the life of lithium ion battery? about two to three years. The typical estimated life of a Lithium-Ion battery is about two to three years or 300 to 500 charge cycles, whichever occurs first. One charge cycle is a period of use from fully charged, to fully discharged, and fully recharged again.   5. Is it good to fully discharge a lithium ion battery? Lithium-ion batteries should not be frequently fully discharged and recharged ("deep-cycled"). You may need to discharge it fully occasionally to recalibrate the capacitiy measuring electronics in the accumulator. Every 30 cycles or so should be enough.   6. How do I know if my lithium ion battery is bad? If the battery is dead or at the end of life, then it won't take charge anymore. If the battery is dead or at the end of life, the battery will swell a bit. The battery starts to heat up very quickly is also one of the indication that your battery is at the end of life.   7. Is there an alternative to lithium-ion batteries? Zinc-ion: A competitive alternative to lithium-ion for stationary energy storage. Lithium-ion batteries are the leading battery technology for both electric vehicles (EVs) and the renewable energy industry.   8. Do lithium ion batteries go bad if not used? Lithium Ion batteries "go bad" when they are stored in discharged state. It is all about battery voltage. If voltage is too low - undesireable chemical reactions will happen and battery will degrade. If battery is not empty and not used for long time - it will be fine.   9. What temperature is bad for lithium batteries? At temperatures above +60°C the Li-ion battery loses capacity constantly and thus performance capability.   10. At what voltage is a lithium ion battery dead? 3.4V. The voltage starts at 4.2 maximum and quickly drops down to about 3.7V for the majority of the battery life. Once you hit 3.4V the battery is dead and at 3.0V the cutoff circuitry disconnects the battery (more on that later. You may also run across 4.1V/3.6V batteries.     You May Also Like: How to Learn Analog Circuit Design Topological Materials are a Promising Material For Boosting Thermoelectric Generation Efficiency Use Polymer Films Material to Make Solar Cell Learn Some Basic Knowledge about Capacitor Voltage Transformer The First Full-Size IBC Bifacial Solar Module in the World

Warm hints: The word in this article is about 3000 words and  reading time is about 15 minutes.   This paper is mainly about how to learn analog circuit design. An analog circuit is a circuit used to transmit, transform, process, amplify, measure, and display analog signals. Analog signals refer to continuously changing electrical signals. Analog circuit is the basis of the electronic circuit, which mainly includes amplifier circuit, signal processing, and processing circuit, oscillation circuit, modulation and demodulation circuit, and power supply.    Analog circuit   Catalogs   I. What’s the Engineering Thinking in Analog Circuit II. Commonly Used Semiconductor Devices III. Negative Feedback Basic Concepts IV. Operational Amplifier Development V. Conclusion FAQ I. What’s the Engineering Thinking in Analog Circuit   Analog circuit is a very important profession, and difficult for people to learn. Now, let me talk about my understanding of the analog circuit. When it comes to the understanding and application of analog circuits, I’ve done some projects and participated in competitions. The analog circuit is an engineering course, and the earning focus is to master the engineering ideas. It’s better to put it into practice, instead of only doing the exams. What is the engineering idea? Encyclopedia +explains as this: "Engineering is the application of science and mathematics. Through this, natural material and energy characteristics can be made into efficient, reliable, and human-friendly products flow through a variety of structures, machines, products, systems, and processes, with the shortest Time, and less refined manpower, so the concept of engineering comes out and it has evolved into an independent discipline and skill. "For example, in analog circuits, there is a very Important engineering thinking - approximation.   In high school physics class, we learn a lot of circuits are ideal circuits. The wire resistance is always 0, the transformer efficiency is 100%, the ideal voltmeter resistance is infinite, the ideal ammeter resistance is 0, and so on. You can see that many times the calculation in an analog circuit will often omit one or two smaller items and use the equal sign instead of the equal sign directly.   Why use an approximation? To put it plainly, people’s understanding of nature in human science is not comprehensive enough to describe the natural phenomenon with absolute precision. Or human’s understanding is limited. By the means of approximation, people have not only achieved an obvious effect on solving the problem but also greatly simplifies the procedure and saves time and effort. With this thought, many achievements have been made in human science, which has also proved its reliability.    Summary Mold itself is a very complex subject, and the molding course is just one of the most basic things. Analog Circuit Meaning is the electronic circuit that processes analog signals. Most of the signals in nature are analog signals, and they have continuous amplitude values, such as the sound signal when speaking. Analog circuits can be such signal processing (of course, need to be converted into electrical signals), such as amplifier to amplify the sound signal, the radio can send analog sound signals, image signals. It can even be assumed that all circuits are based on analog circuits (even for digital circuits, the underlying principle is based on analog circuits). Its importance is self-evident.    Due to the rapid development of digital circuits and programmable devices, many superior features are demonstrated. Many electronic devices are slowly digital but still can not do without analog circuits. The most important analog circuit devices, non-semiconductor devices are none other than. The most basic and commonly used semiconductor devices are diodes, transistors, FETs, and operational amplifiers. II. Commonly Used Semiconductor Devices   The diodes have many roles. Ordinary diodes can be used for rectification, light-emitting diodes can be used for indicator and lighting, regulators can be regulated, varactor diodes can be used for signal modulation. The mold course related to the part of the diode is relatively simple. And many characteristics of the FET are similar to the transistor, so we often explain transistor or amplifier instead.    The basic function of the transistor is to enlarge. The transistor constitutes a variety of circuits because of its features, reflecting a lot of engineering ideas. The transistor-based circuit is the amplifier whose input sound is small, the output sound is great. Amplifier output and the input voltage (or current) ratio is called magnification, also known as gain. For a voltage, if the time for the horizontal axis, voltage vertical axis for mapping, the graph is the voltage waveform. If an amplifier with a gain of 5 inputs a constant voltage of 1V (the waveform on the left is shown below), the output should always be 5V (the waveform is shown in the middle figure below), neither changing with time nor changing with temperature And the input voltage exactly the same shape. However, if the magnification is unstable and constantly changing, the original input signal will be distorted (as shown on the right), and the signal may change from a horizontal straight line to a curved line. This waveform change is called distortion. Voltage waveform   III. Negative Feedback Basic Concepts   The basic concept of negative feedback makes some very powerful people find a good way: negative feedback. What is negative feedback? "Feedback refers to the output of the system is returned to the input and affect the input, thus affecting the overall system output Feedback can be divided into positive feedback and negative feedback is to make the output and input the opposite effect, the system Output tends to be stable. "The above explanation is hard to make sense. I have two examples. When playing the inverted pendulum, we propped up an inverted wooden stick by hand. When the wooden stick was tilted in one direction, we offset the change by moving the hand to the direction of the stick so that the stick could be in our hand's balance.    When I was in high school, I often had a monthly test. I found that some of my classmates had a habit of starting a good study when a test score was poor and going up next time. When the test was better, the next month will be relaxed, so results will come down again, so again and again. Both of these examples illustrate that negative feedback can make the system more stable. We ignore the specific circuit, only draw a simple diagram to illustrate how the transistor amplifier uses the negative feedback. The triangle below shows a transistor consisting of an amplifier, the magnification is A, the input is I, the output O = I * A, because the magnification A instability, so the output waveform will be distorted.  Negative feedback   Some devices have been added to the circuit as follows. The purple circle is the adder, combined with the purple "+", "-" symbol that its output Y = (+ I) + (- X) = I-X, in the actual circuit with the resistance can be achieved; Block F is the feedback device, which means that the signal is taken out from the output O and multiplied by F to get X, so X = O * F, where F <1 (this part can be realized by resistance in the actual circuit). Triangle refers to the amplifier A, mainly composed of transistors, meeting O = A * Y, and A magnification is unstable, easy to be disturbed. Add a feedback device   You can list the equations: Y = I-XO = Y * AX = O * F to calculate the gain of the entire circuit: Formula   If the magnification A is very large, while F is not small, A * F 》》1 symbol "》》" suggests far greater than the approximate idea. The entire circuit magnification: Formula   IV. Operational Amplifier Development   1.Working principle of operational amplifier Because the feedback device can be realized by the resistance, the resistance value of the ordinary resistance is not easily disturbed by the outside world, so the value of F is very steady, so the magnification of the whole circuit is very steady. We succeeded in solving the stability problem of the transistor by negative feedback. We can see here that the feedback part and the amplification part form a ring, so the amplification of the whole circuit is called the loop gain or the closed-loop gain. Before adding the feedback, the amplification of circuit A is called the open-loop gain. Due to the negative feedback, the stability of the circuit is improved, but there is also a cost: Because the AF 》》1, then "A》》1 / F" open-loop gain is much larger than the closed-loop gain, which means the amplifier gain is greatly reduced. But in general, this is worth it for stability. Operational amplifier In the above circuit, in order to actually create a large open-loop amplifier gain A, often with multi-stage transistor amplifier in series design.   Because the high demand for such high-gain amplifiers is very common, so some people in history put them into a finished circuit board module. This is used directly as a component on the line when needed because it’s very convenient. This is the original op-amp, which is referred to as op-amp. The development of integrated circuits makes a large number of transistor components integrated into a small chip possible, so the common integrated operational amplifier turns up today.    The "op-amp" is named for its mathematical operation originally used to simulate computers. Although now widely used digital computer is no longer used to calculate the operational amplifier, but the name still retained. Today, op-amps play an important role in analog circuits and have also become one of the focuses of the analog circuit. The op-amp has virtual short and virtual interrupt characteristics. Usually, op-amp has two inputs U + and U-, an output Uo, between them to meet Uo = A * (U + -U-) op-amp open-loop gain A often up to dozens Million ~ millions, but the op-amp output voltage limited by the supply voltage can not exceed the supply voltage. So the op-amp input-output relationship similar to the shape below. In the figure, the horizontal axis is (U + -U-) and the vertical axis is Uo. Op amp input - output In the middle of a straight line, the op-amp is in the normal state of amplification, called the linear region, meeting Uo = A * (U + -U-). When the absolute value of the input becomes slightly larger, the output will be power limited, no longer satisfying the above relationship. The value of Uo is usually slightly smaller than the supply voltage range (note that the op-amp can be dual supply, that is the supply voltage range can be afloat between a negative value and a positive value), which is called the non-linear region. Rail-to-rail op-amp output can reach the power supply voltage.   When the operational amplifier in the linear region, the Uo value is very limited, but A large. So U + -U- = UoA ≈ 0 or U + ≈ U-. At this time, the positive and negative op-amp input voltage is almost equal, like a short circuit similarly, which is called a short circuit. So only when the operational amplifier in the enlarged area will have "virtual short" characteristics, rather than the inherent properties of the op-amp. On the other hand, due to the internal structure of the op-amp, its input impedance is large.    The input impedance can be simply understood as: the input impedance = input voltage/input current input impedance, which means that the op-amp input with only a small current can work properly. Because of this, an op-amp can be used for some weak current detection, such as the human brain, myoelectric wave, whose maximum voltage is only a few mV, the current value is very small. This feature of the op-amp is called a virtual interrupt, meaning that there is almost no current flowing into the input like the open circuit. Different from the short circuit, a virtual interrupt is the inherent properties of the op-amp, which will not change with the circuit.   2.Op amp non-ideal characteristics   The op amp's non-ideal characteristics of the op-amp by the transistor composition. Obviously, like the transistor, there will be many undesirable characteristics. The actual operational amplifier will not fully meet the short virtual fault characteristics. Its normal work needs input current input, which is called the input bias current.    The same op-amp input offset voltage, input offset voltage, input offset current, and other non-ideal parameters. These non-ideal characteristics, such as the input bias current is small, sometimes will have a great impact on the circuit, resulting in the circuit does not work. Therefore, there are some ways to reduce the impact of these factors. In practical applications, the non-ideal characteristics of the op-amp are a very important issue. There are many ways to eliminate the non-ideal characteristics of the op-amp, but not introduced here.    Other cores of the molding course are the transistor and op-amp. Around these devices, the molding course will explain a variety of circuits, including the calculation of the amplifier circuit analysis, multi-stage amplifier circuit, the amplifier frequency characteristics, the idea of feedback, power amplifier circuit, comparator, oscillator, integrator, differentiator, waveform generation, Signal processing, filter, integrated power supply circuit and so on. When comparing op-amp and transistor In the actual design of the circuit, the op-amp will be more than the transistor. Because many of the features of op-amps are better than triodes, the circuit design is simple, and the cost of op-amps is often not too high.   Many times you can achieve the same effect with the transistor and op-amp and lower cost of each op-amp. Because op-amps integrate a large number of transistors, the average cost per transistor is very low. For example, a conventional audio pre-amplifier can be handled with a universal op-amp. and if you use the transistor, you may need more transistors, and the human cost during design is far higher than the op-amp program. Of course, the transistor has its advantages.    In some very simple circuits, the stability of the magnification is not strictly required, one or two transistors can accomplish. And triodes are often used to save costs. In addition, in some extreme conditions, such as working in high-frequency and high-power environments (such as RF signal transmitting circuits), a well-designed triode circuit will perform much better than an op-amp, or at a much lower cost. Even in some conditions, only the transistors can be completed, then you need to choose the transistor to build the circuit.   This video give a detailed explanation about analog circuit: Analog Circuits Lecture V. Conclusion   Analog circuits are a very complex discipline that involves more than knowledge written in books. Books are generally introduced in accordance with the principle of work, simplifying a lot of difficulties to understand, but in reality, more factors must be considered. So the gap between the actual circuit and the book is very large. Such as triangular wave generator built with an op-amp introduced in analog circuit books usually can not work in all likelihood. However, the main principle of the actual circuit is the same as the book description. Therefore, the design of analog circuits often requires a lot of experience, for there are many things that can not be explained and even difficult to calculate. I hope this article can help you learn more about analog circuits. FAQ   1. What is meant by analog circuit? The Analog electronic circuit includes an analog signal with any continuously changeable signal. While working on an analog signal, an analog circuit alters the signal in some manner. Analog circuit can be used to convert the original signal into some other format such as a digital signal.   2. What is the difference between digital and analog circuits? Analog Circuits and Digital Circuits is a classic way of differentiating between two types of electronic circuits based on the signals they process. To put it in simple words, Analog Circuits deals with continuous analog signals whereas Digital Circuits deals with discrete digital signals.   3. Where are analog circuits used? Analog circuits represent key components of communications and other systems in widespread, growing commercial use. High-speed transistors are essential to the operation of such circuits.   4. Is digital cheaper than analog? If you are looking at the straight-up module cost an analog vs. a digital version, then yes, the analog module will likely be a cheaper solution. However, if you look at the total cost, or the “value” of the digital module versus an analog solution, then digital will in fact be “cheaper”.   5. What is analog design? Analog design is part of integrated circuit design and focuses on signal fidelity, amplification and filtering. Those who perform the function of analog design are qualified electrical engineers.   6. Why is analog design difficult? Ask most engineers and they would tell you why: analog design is harder than digital, and requires more knowledge and more factors to consider such as a deep understanding of efficient power, precision measurement, wireless connectivity, and reliable circuit protection.   7. Which is better analog or digital design? Analog circuits can be precise, elegant design with various components with very simple. For example, two resistors joining to make a voltage divider. Generally, Analog circuits are much more complex to design compared to which complete the same task as digitally.   8. What is the tool used for analog circuit design? A suite of web tools to help you design signal conditioning circuits faster: Analog Filter Wizard, Precision ADC Driver Tool, Photodiode Wizard, In Amp Diamond Plot, Direct Digital Synthesis Simulator, and Virtual Eval.   9. How hard is circuit design? Circuit design is a lot like any other learned skill, you start with the basics. These basic circuits can be learned in a few days. ... So yes, it can be very difficult to reach a high level of design expertise and you never really master it because the art continues to evolve.   10. How does circuit design work? Digital electronic circuit design takes the electrical signals in the form of discrete values. The data are represented in the form of zeros and ones. Digital circuits extensively use transistors, interconnected to give create logic gates that provide the function of Boolean logic.   You May Also Like:   Look Forward to the Future of Semiconductor GaN High-Electron Mobility Transistor Power Amplifier Trojans are everywhere even the hardware Remote Electronic Transport Promote Organic Photovaltaic Power Generation Make Next-Gen of Computer Be Faster,Better, More efficient Some suggestions about protecting transformers  

Warm hints: The word in this article is about 2500 and  reading time is about 12 minutes.SummaryIndustrial robot is a multi joint manipulator or a multi degree of freedom machine tool for industrial field. It can automatically execute work, and is a machine that realizes various functions by its own power and control ability. It can accept human command or run in accordance with pre programmed programs. Modern industrial robots can also act according to the principles and guidelines formulated by AI technology.CoreIndustrial RobotsCategoryRobotKeywordsIndustrial robots;RobotContentA comprehensive analysis of industrial robotsCatalogs CatalogsI.What is industial robotsII.Composition structureIII.Types of industrial robotsIV.Industrial robot industrial chain analysisV.Data AnalysisVI.The development trend of robot in the next 10 yearsVII.Human-computer cooperation promotes the popularization of robots and the beginning of the integration of robotsVIII.Machine vision and deep learning make robots more Intelligent IntroductionI.What is industial robotsIndustrial robot is a multi joint manipulator or a multi degree of freedom machine tool for industrial field. It can automatically execute work, and is a machine that realizes various functions by its own power and control ability. It can accept human command or run in accordance with pre programmed programs. Modern industrial robots can also act according to the principles and guidelines formulated by AI technology.II.Composition structureThe industrial robot is composed of three basic parts: the main body, the driving system and the control system. The main body is the seat and the actuator, including the arm, wrist and hand, and some robots and a walking mechanism. Most industrial robots have 3~6 motion degrees of freedom, of which the wrist usually has 1~3 motion degrees of freedom. The driving system includes the power plant and the transmission mechanism to make the actuator produce the corresponding action. The control system sends out instructions to the driving system and the actuator according to the input program and controls it.III.Types of industrial robots1. Mobile Robot(AGV)A type of industrial robot, which is controlled by a computer, and has the functions of mobile, automatic navigation, multi sensor control, and network interaction.Widely used in machinery, electronics, textile, tobacco, medical, food, papermaking industries such as flexible handling, transmission and other functions, is also used in automated warehouse, flexible manufacturing system, flexible assembly system (with AGV as the assembly platform; at the same time activities) in the station, airports, post office sorting items as transport tool.2. Spot Welding RobotIt has the characteristics of stable performance, large workspace, fast speed and strong load capacity. The welding quality is obviously better than manual welding, which greatly improves the productivity of spot welding operation.It is mainly used for the welding of the vehicle, and the production process is completed by the major automobile main plant. Enterprise international industrial robot with long-term cooperation between the major automobile enterprises, provide all kinds of welding robot unit products to the large car production enterprises and the welding robot and vehicle production line matching form into Chinese, occupy the market leading position in the field.3. arc welding robotIt is mainly used in welding production of all kinds of automobile parts. In this field, the major international industrial robot manufacturing enterprises are mainly to provide unit products to complete equipment suppliers.4.Laser processing robotLaser processing robot is the application of robot technology to laser processing, and a more flexible laser processing operation is realized through high precision industrial robot.5. Vacuum robotA robot working in a vacuum environment is mainly used in the semiconductor industry to realize the transmission of the wafer in the vacuum chamber. Vacuum manipulator is difficult to import, restricted, large consumption and versatility. It has become a key component that restricts the R & D Progress of the semiconductor equipment and the competitiveness of the whole product. Moreover, the overseas scrutiny of Chinese buyers is part of the catalogue of banned products. Vacuum manipulator has become a serious problem that restricts the manufacturing of semiconductor equipment in China. The technology of direct drive vacuum robot belongs to the original innovation technology.6. Clean RobotAn industrial robot used in a clean environment. With the continuous improvement of production technology level, its production environment is increasingly demanding. Many modern industrial products are required to carry out in a clean environment. Clean robots are the key equipments for production under clean environment.  DetailIV.Industrial robot industrial chain analysisThe industrial robot industry upstream core components, the main reducer and control system, which is equivalent to the robot's "brain", is in the middle reaches of the robot, the robot is the "body", downstream systems integrator, domestic enterprises are concentrated in this link.Industrial chain analysis of industrial robots in ChinaThe upstream parts industry of China's industrial robots is mainly reducer, servo motor, frequency converter and controller. Among them, the proportion of reducer, servo motor and servo system in industrial robot cost is larger, which is 39% and 28% respectively, and the proportion of noumenal manufacturing is 22%.Although the speed reducer, servo system for industrial robots in a large proportion of the cost, but the domestic reducer, servo motor and other key parts of the development relative lag, low level of technology, poor product stability, compared with foreign products, there are many gaps, resulting in domestic industrial robot speed reducer, servo motor and other components mainly rely on imports, domestic industrial enterprises the robot production cost is high, less competitive. The imported gear reducer mainly ABB, Harmonic, Sumitomo nabok, and other brands, the main servo motor Yaskawa, KUKA, Matsushita, MITSUBISHI and other brands.The sales of industrial robots are mostly done through direct marketing channels, with the majority of the system integrators. At the same time, industrial robots can also be sold by distributors, agents, traders, engineering providers and other non direct sales, and foreign brands enter the Chinese market generally through the form of agents. The core components are generally purchased by traders and agents.The industrial robot industry is mainly downstream users of electronic and electrical, automotive, plastics and rubber, chemical and other fields, mainly used for handling, packing, palletizing, welding, cutting, spraying, and with labor costs increased gradually, and constantly improve the level of industrial automation, industrial robot application areas gradually expand, use gradually increased.V.Data AnalysisThe list of RBR50 in 2016 covers 11 countries. The distribution is as follows: Canada (3), China (3), Denmark (1), Germany (3), India (1), Israel (1), Japan (9), South Korea (1), Switzerland (1), Britain (1), and the United States.The list of RBR50 in 2015 covers a total of 11 countries. The national distribution is as follows: Canada (3), Denmark (1), France (1), Germany (8), Japan (9), South Korea (1), Holland (1), Switzerland (3), Taiwan, China (1), Britain (1), and the United States.By comparison, the United States in 2016 the new list of 5 companies, 5 companies failed in Germany, Switzerland retained only 1 companies in France and Holland is completely failed. At the same time, there are some new faces, Israel, India and China.It can be seen from the RBR50 list that the European robot industry has a serious downward trend and needs to be revival. The GreyOrange company in India is catching up with the trend of the rapid development of the logistics and transportation industry. Its flagship mobile robot will have great potential in the Asian market. Britain's Delphi, SoilMachineDynamics, OpenBionics three companies listed, surprisingly, OpenBionics small company has been on the list for two consecutive years; Canada continues to rely on Clearpath, Robotiq and new TitanMedical three companies to maintain strength.2015 global 30% industrial robots are sold to the Chinese marketWhether it's made in China or raised in 4, the 4 concept indicates that China's manufacturing industry is moving towards the direction of intellectualization and mechanization. The rapid development of industrial robots is one of the most representative industries.Strong sales growthIn 2015, the sales of China's market exceeded 75000 units, up 36.6% from the same period, and 3 robots were sold in the world, and 1 were sold to China. China Industrial Robot MarketIn 2015, the sales of industrial robots in the Chinese market accounted for about 30% of the world  AnalysisVI.The development trend of robot in the next 10 yearsThe robot itself in the overall change, to a more secure and easy to use, more conducive to popularization, more intelligent direction. The next three trends in the next ten years can solve the industry pain points, promote the real popularity of robots, and also contain huge investment opportunities.The general software platform reduces the threshold of the robot industryThe main internal power of the rapid popularization of computers and smart phones is the common operating system and application software, and robots are the same. The operating system, middleware, and programming language used by different robot vendors are different, which increases the cost of use and the scope of robot application. The general software platform (operating system) is a solution to this problem, making use of robots as convenient as smartphones.A common development platform for robot softwareThe general software platform greatly reduces the development threshold of robots. The mature software in the community can be directly brushed into the robot's use. In the future, with 3D printing technology, small businesses and even individuals will have the chance to become robot developers. The opportunity is that there may be two development or excellent applications for a ROS system, a "burst" like a smart phone APP.VII.Human-computer cooperation promotes the popularization of robots and the beginning of the integration of robotsHuman-machine cooperation is a new form of industrial robot development. It combines human intelligence and robot efficiency together to complete operations. In a word, human is directly manipulating robots with "hands". Human-computer collaboration is an inevitable choice for robot evolution. It is characterized by safety, ease of use and low cost. Ordinary workers can operate it like electrical appliances.According to the US ABIResearch report, from 2015 to 2020, the market share of cooperative robots is expected to increase by 10 times, from close to 95 million US dollars to over 1 billion US dollars. It will be driven by the following three main markets: electronic manufacturing and electronic intelligence, small and medium enterprises and enterprises seeking robot optimization solutions.The structure of the cooperative robot is simple, and the function is realized mainly through the integration of software. The main components of the hardware are spherical joint, reverse driving motor, force sensing / visual sensor and lighter material. The core components of the traditional reducer will not be the key in the future. At present, the cooperation robot is in the market introduction stage, the cost is still high, the efficiency is low, and the utilization is not satisfactory. The main robot manufacturers have launched various kinds of cooperative robots to seize the entry, and the domestic enterprises have the opportunity to run together with foreign capital. SIASUN, AIFUTE, Ao Bo in 2015 have launched a collaborative robot intelligent.VIII.Machine vision and deep learning make robots more IntelligentArtificial intelligence is first applied to the field of industrial robots, mainly machine vision and deep learning.Machine vision is a key factor in the transformation of an existing robot from an automatic device to an intelligent machine. The first is used as an auxiliary tool for the robot, improve the flexibility and feedback of the work environment, mainly used for guiding and positioning, detection and recognition, with the development of industrial data and deep learning, the future will enable the machine vision to become the leading intelligent production system, make a decision and pre judgment.In 2014, the scale of the global machine vision continued to rise to up to $3 billion 670 million. Mainly in North America, Germany, Britain, Japan, China and other regions and countries, China accounts for 8.1%, and the global market is expected to reach US $5 billion by 2018. 2007-2018 year global machine vision market scale ConclusionThis is an era of "made in China" to the transformation of "China's intellectual creation". Robots replace human beings to do repetitive things, so that we can advance technological progress, and talents will enter new industries, and everyone's production value will be improved.Not long ago, Foxconn, the world's largest producer, has rounded the horn of "machine replacement" to many enterprises on the road of automation. We can boldly predict that in the next ten years, the industrial robot market will be broader. "Machine replacing human" will go deep into all walks of life. Automation transformation will also become the goal of many enterprises.  Book RecommendationRise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future Paperback – July 12, 2016What are the jobs of the future? How many will there be? And who will have them? As technology continues to accelerate and machines begin taking care of themselves, fewer people will be necessary. Artificial intelligence is already well on its way to making "good jobs" obsolete: many paralegals, journalists, office workers, and even computer programmers are poised to be replaced by robots and smart software. As progress continues, blue and white collar jobs alike will evaporate, squeezing working- and middle-class families ever further. At the same time, households are under assault from exploding costs, especially from the two major industries-education and health care-that, so far, have not been transformed by information technology. The result could well be massive unemployment and inequality as well as the implosion of the consumer economy itself.The past solutions to technological disruption, especially more training and education, aren't going to work. We must decide, now, whether the future will see boad-based prosperity or catastrophic levels of inequality and economic insecurity. Rise of the Robots is essential reading to understand what accelerating technology means for our economic prospects-not to mention those of our children-as well as for society as a whole.--Martin Ford  (Author)  Relevant information about "A Comprehensive Analysis of Industrial Robots"About the article "A Comprehensive Analysis of Industrial Robots", If you have better ideas, don't hesitate to  write your thoughts in the following comment area. 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