The Kynix Blog

Today in this article we will discuss about how PCB is developed and its industrial trend. Printed circuit board, also called PCB, is an important electronic component and the support of electronic components, which also have a circuit in which a metal conductor can be connected to an electronic component. Nowadays electronic equipment requires high performance, high speed and thin miniaturization. As a multidisciplinary industry, PCB is the key technology of high-end electronic equipment. It plays an important role in electronic interconnection technology. Introduction to how PCB worksCatalogI PCB overviewII. Main types of PCB2.1 Single-sided boards2.2 Double-sided boards2.3 Multi-layer boardsIII Industrial chain of PCB3.1 Glass fiber cloth3.2 Copper foil3.3 Copper clad laminateIV Development of PCB industry in ChinaFAQI PCB overviewTraditional circuit boards are referred to as printed circuit boards because the circuit and its surface are created using the printing etching inhibitor method. At the moment, most circuit boards are made by using an etching inhibitor (film pressing or coating), and then etching is used to make the circuit board after exposure and development.Due to the continuous miniaturization and refinement of electronic products, most of the current circuit boards are coated with etching inhibitors (film pressing or coating). After exposure and development, the board will be etched to form the final circuit board. PCBs have progressed from single-sided to double-sided, multilayer, and flexible boards, and this trend is expected to continue. Because of its ongoing advancements in the areas of high precision, high density, and high reliability. PCB maintains a strong vitality in future electronic equipment development projects due to its continuous development of high precision, high density, and high reliability, reducing volume, cost, and improving performance.Printed circuit boardThe discussion of the development trend of the future PCB manufacturing technology at home and abroad is almost consistent, that is, developing toward the direction of high density, high precision, fine aperture, fine wire, fine spacing, high reliability, multilayer, high speed transmission, light weight and thin shape. At the same time, it is aimed to increase productivity, reduce costs, reduce pollution, adapt to multi-species and small run production during manufacturing. The technical development level of printed circuit is represented by the line width, aperture and the ratio of thickness to aperture of printed circuit.The creator of the printed circuit board was an Austrian called Paul Eisler. In 1936, he first used a printed circuit board in a radio. In 1943, Americans mainly applied this technology to military radios. Then in 1948, this invention was officially approved for commercial use in the United States.  Since the middle of 1950s, printed circuit boards have been widely used.Before the emergence of PCB, the interconnection of electronic components was accomplished by direct connection of electrical wires. Nowadays, wires exist only for laboratory applications. Printed circuit boards (PCB) have definitely occupied the position of absolute control in the electronic industry. II Main types of PCBAccording to the number of circuit layers, it can be divided into single-sided board, double-sided and multilayer board. The common multilayer board is usually 4 or 6 layers, and the complex multilayer board can have dozens of layers. Printed circuit boards are mainly divided into three types:2.1 Single-sided boardsOn the most basic PCB, the parts are concentrated on one side and the wire will be on the other (when there is patch element, it is on the same side as the wire, and the plug-in device is on the other side). Because the wire only appears on one side, this type of PCB is called single-sided board. The single-sided board has many strict restrictions on the design circuit (since there is only one side, the wiring cannot intersect and have to go around a separate path), so only the early circuits use this type of board.2.2 Doublesided boardsThere are wiring on both sides of this kind of circuit board.However, to use these two sides of the wire, you must have an appropriate circuit connection between the two sides. The "bridge" between these circuits is called “via”. The via hole is a small hole filled or coated with metal on the PCB, which can be connected to both sides of the wire. It can be connected to two sides of the wire. Because the area of the double-sided board is twice as large as that of the single panel,  it solves the difficulty of wiring interleaving in the single panel (it can get to the other side through the hole), so it is more suitable for the circuit which is more complicated than the single sided.2.3 Multi-layer boardsIn order to increase the area in which wiring can be made, the multilayer board is made up of more single or double-sided wiring boards. A printed circuit board with one side as the inner layer, two single sides as the outer layer or two sides as the inner layer, and two single sides as the outer layer, which is interlinked with conductive patterns according to the design requirements, is composed of four layers and six layers of printed circuit boards, also known as multilayer printed circuit boards (PCB). The number of layers on the board does not mean that there are several independent wiring layers. In special cases, an empty layer is added to control the thickness of the board, and the number of layers is usually even, and contains the outermost two layers. Most motherboards are 4 to 8 layers, but technically we can do nearly 100 layers of PCB. Large scale supercomputers mostly use quite many layers of motherboards. However, because such computers have been replaced by clusters of many common computers, super multilayer boards have been gradually unused. Because the layers in the PCB are tightly combined, it is generally not easy to see the actual number, but if you look closely at the motherboard, you can see it. Also there are two kind of boards called rigid and flexible printed boards. > Rigid and Flexible Printed BoardsDivided into rigid circuit boards, flexible circuit boards and rigid-flexible printed circuit boards. The PCB shown in the first picture below is generally referred to as the rigid PCB, and the yellow connection line in the second picture is called flexible PCB. The intuitive difference between a rigid PCB and a flexible PCB is that the flexible PCB is flexible. The common thickness of rigid PCB is 0.2mm / 0.4mm / 0.6mm / 0.8mm / 1.0mm / 1.2mm / 1.6mm / 2.0mm etc. The common thickness of flexible PCB is 0.2mm. The thickening layer is added to the back where the parts are to be welded , and the thickness of the thickened layer varies from 0.2 mm to 0.4 mm. TThe purpose of understanding these is to provide them with a spatial reference for the design of a structural engineer. The common materials for rigid PCB include: phenolic paper laminates, epoxy paper laminates, Polyester glass felt laminates, epoxy glass cloth laminates; flexible PCB materials include: polyester film, polyimide film, ethylene propylene fluoride film.Rigid boardFlexible board III Industrial chain of PCBAccording to the upstream and downstream classification of the industrial chain, PCB industry can be divided into raw materials - CCL (copper-clad laminate) - PCB (printed circuit board) - electronic product application. The relationship is simply expressed as: 3.1 Glass fiber clothGlass fiber cloth is one of the raw materials of copper clad plate, which is made of glass fiber yarn and account for about 40% of the cost of copper clad laminate (thick plate) and 25% (thin plate). Glass fiber yarn is calcined into liquid state from raw materials such as silica sand in the kiln, then pulled into very fine glass fiber through extremely small alloy nozzles, and then hundreds of glass fibers are twisted into glass fiber yarn. The manufacture of glass fabric is similar to that of weaving enterprises. It can control production capacity and quality by controlling rotation speed, and the specifications are relatively single and stable. Since World War II, there has been almost no significant change in specifications.Unlike CCL, prices of glass fabrics are the most affected by supply and demand, fluctuating between $0.50-1.00 a meter in recent years. Taiwan and mainland China account for about 70% of the world's production capacity.3.2 Copper foilCopper foil is the raw material that accounts for the largest proportion of the cost of copper clad laminate, about 30% of the cost of copper clad plate (thick plate) and 50% (thin plate). Therefore the price increase of copper foil is the main driving force of the price increase of copper clad laminate. The price of copper foil is closely reflected in the change of copper price. However, the bargaining power is relatively weak. With the rising copper prices, copper foil manufacturers are in a difficult situation, and many enterprises have been forced to close down or be annexed. Even if copper clad laminate manufacturers accept copper foil price increases, copper foil manufacturers are still in a general loss. Another wave of price increases is likely to occur in the first quarter of 2006, possibly driving up CCL prices due to the price gap. 3.3 Copper clad laminateCopper clad laminate (CCL) is a direct raw material of PCB, which uses epoxy resin as fusion agent to press glass fiber cloth and copper foil to make printed circuit board (PCB) after etching, electroplating and multilayer laminate pressing. The copper clad laminate industry is not in high demand for capital, about 3 million to 40 million yuan, and can be stopped or converted at any time. In the upstream and downstream industrial chain structure, CCL has the strongest bargaining power. It has a strong voice in the procurement of glass fiber cloth, copper foil and other raw materials , and as long as the demand of downstream is good, the manufacturer of CCL can transfer the pressure of rising costs to the downstream PCB manufacturers. IV Development of PCB industry in ChinaThe development of PCB in China began in 1956. In 1963-1978, it is gradually expanded to be the PCB industry. More than 20 years after the reform and opening up, due to the introduction of foreign advanced technology and equipment, single-sided board, double-sided board and multi-layer board had a rapid development. The domestic PCB industry has gradually developed from small to large scale.Due to the concentration of downstream industries and relatively low labor and land costs, China has become the region with the strongest development momentum. In 2002, China became the third largest output country of PCB. In 2003, the output value and import and export volume of PCB exceeded $6 billion, which overtaking the United States for the first time and becoming the second largest output country in the world. The proportion of output value also increased from 8.54% in 2000 to 15.30%, nearly doubling. In 2006, China has replaced Japan as the world's largest PCB production base and the most active technology development country. China's PCB industry has maintained a high growth rate of about 20%, which is far higher than that of the global PCB industry. In terms of production composition, the main products of China's PCB industry have shifted from single-sided and dual-sided to multilayer, and are being upgraded from 4-6 layers to more than 6-8 layers. With the rapid growth of multilayer printed board, HDI board and flexible boards, China's PCB industrial structure is gradually being optimized and improved. However, although China's PCB industry has made considerable progress, there is still a big gap compared with advanced countries, and there is still much room for improvement in the future. First of all, China's entry into the PCB industry is relatively late and there are no specialized PCB research and development institution. There is a big gap between the research and development capabilities of some new technologies and foreign manufacturers. Secondly, in terms of product structure, the production of medium and low laminates is still dominated. Although FPC and HDI boards are growing rapidly, the proportion is still low because of its small base. Most of our PCB production equipment depends on imports, and some core raw materials can only rely on imports. The industrial chain is incomplete, which also hindered the domestic PCB series enterprise's development step.  FAQ 1. What is PCB?A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. 2. What is PCB and types of PCB?A printed circuit board (PCB) is a thin board made from fiberglass, composite epoxy, or other laminate materials. PCBs are found in various electrical and electronic components such as beepers, radios, radars, computer systems, etc. Different types of PCBs are used based on the applications. 3. What can a PCB be used for?Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate, employed in the manufacturing of business machines and computers, as well as communication ... 4. Why are PCB green?It is due to the solder mask, which protects the copper circuits printed on the fibre glass core to prevent short circuits, soldering errors, etc. ... The colour of the solder mask gives the board its appearance. 5. What is PCB and its advantages?Compact Size and Saving of Wire. A characteristic PCB includes a large number of electronic components. On a Printed circuit board, the interconnection between the components is made through copper tracks instead of using a number of current carrying wires. It makes the interconnections less bulky. 6. How long does it take for PCBs to break down?3.5 to 83 days. The time it takes for half of the amount of PCBs (initially) present to be broken down ranges from 3.5 to 83 days for molecules with 1 to 5 chlorine atoms. In water, PCBs are essentially broken down by the effect of sunlight (photolysis). 7. What is the disadvantage of PCB?Disadvantages: Easy to Cause Handling Damage. Process Uses a Carcinogen (Thiourea) Exposed Tin on Final Assembly can Corrode. 8. Which PCB design software is the best for beginners?Top Best PCB Design Software of 2021a. PROTEL (Altium Designer) b.PADS (PowerPCB) c. ORCAD. d. Allegro. e. Eagle（Easily Applicable Graphical Layout Editor）f. Kicad.g. EasyEda.h. Fritzing. 9. What are the advantage of flexible PCB?The flexible circuit board are designed for saving room and improving the flexibility to meet a smaller and higher density mounting design, it also helps to reduce the assembly process and enhance reliability. 10. Why do we use PCB instead of breadboard circuit?The advantages of a printed circuit board: the board is permanent to have an electronic device worked. PCB has a better current carrying capacity comparing to a breadboard, you can make your traces wider to take more current so that work well. ... You can mount heat-sinks to the board so that have them rigid. 11. What PCB means?Printed-Circuit-BoardA printed circuit board, or PC board, or PCB, is a non-conductive material with conductive lines printed or etched. Electronic components are mounted on the board and the traces connect the components together to form a working circuit or assembly. 12. Why are PCBs dangerous for humans?PCBs are a probable human carcinogen.Studies of PCBs in humans have found increased rates of melanomas, liver cancer, gall bladder cancer, biliary tract cancer, gastrointestinal tract cancer, and brain cancer, and may be linked to breast cancer. 13. What are PCBs in electronics?A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. 14. Why are PCB green?It is due to the solder mask, which protects the copper circuits printed on the fibre glass core to prevent short circuits, soldering errors, etc. ... The colour of the solder mask gives the board its appearance. 15. What is PCB and its role?A process control block (PCB) is a data structure used by computer operating systems to store all the information about a process. It is also known as a process descriptor. When a process is created (initialized or installed), the operating system creates a corresponding process control block. 16. Which software is best for PCB design?- NI Multisim.- KiCad EDA.- Autodesk EAGLE.- DipTrace.- Ultiboard.- CAM350.- ExpressPCB Plus.- SolidWorks PCB. 

The goal of this project is to design and build an automated paint mixer that can accurately and efficiently mix various types of paint to a consistent and predetermined color and consistency. This machine will be able to handle a wide range of paint types, including water-based, oil-based, and specialty paints, and will be able to mix small and large quantities of paint with precise control. Mixing paint by hand can be a time-consuming and labor-intensive process and achieving a consistent color and consistency can be difficult and require significant trial and error. In addition, the manual process is prone to errors and inconsistencies, which can lead to wasted materials and costly rework. An automated paint mixer is a machine that is used to mix different types of paint in a precise and consistent manner. The main components of an automated paint mixer include a linear screw actuator, a mixer, a controller (such as an Arduino, PLC, or other type of controller), a DC gear motor, a DC pump, a flow sensor, a relay module, an impeller, and a webcam (ESP-CAM).   Materials1Controller (Arduino, PLC, ARM controller, Raspberry Pi)2DC Gear Motor3Photoelectric IR Sensor4DC Pump5Flow Sensor6Esp Cam7Linear Screw Actuator8Mixer Actuator (Impeller)9Conveyor Belt The linear screw actuator is a type of mechanical device that converts rotary motion into linear motion. It consists of a screw that is turned by a motor, which drives a nut along the length of the screw. In an automated paint mixer, the linear screw actuator is used to move the mixer up and down, allowing it to mix the paint thoroughly. The mixer is the component that actually mixes the paint. It can be a simple paddle mixer, or it may be a more complex device with multiple blades or other mixing elements. The mixer is typically powered by the DC gear motor, which is a type of electric motor that is commonly used in automated paint mixers because of its high torque and low speed. The controller is the "brain" of the automated paint mixer. It receives input from the various sensors on the machine (such as the flow sensor) and uses this information to control the various components of the mixer (such as the DC pump and the linear screw actuator). The controller can be an Arduino, a PLC, or any other type of device that can receive input and controlling output. The DC pump is used to move the paint from one location to another within the mixer. It is typically powered by the DC gear motor and is controlled by the controller. The flow sensor is a device that measures the flow rate of the paint as it is being pumped. This information is used by the controller to ensure that the correct amount of paint is being mixed.  The relay module is a device that is used to control the flow of electricity to the various components of the automated paint mixer. It is activated by the controller and allows the controller to turn different components on and off as needed. The impeller is a component that is used to mix the paint more thoroughly. It is a type of rotor with blades that is placed inside the mixer and is rotated by the DC gear motor. The impeller helps to break up any clumps or lumps in the paint, ensuring that it is fully mixed. Finally, the ESP-CAM (or webcam) is a camera that is used to monitor the mixing process. It is connected to the controller and can be used to view the mixer remotely, allowing for easy monitoring of the mixing process. Overall, an automated paint mixer is a complex and sophisticated machine that is designed to mix different types of paint in a precise and consistent manner. Its various components work together to ensure that the paint is mixed properly and that the final product is of the highest quality.

IntroductionThe AI revolution is in full swing, fundamentally reshaping industries from healthcare to finance. As algorithms become more complex and data sets grow exponentially, the demand for specialized, high-performance hardware has skyrocketed. For years, GPUs have been the go-to solution for training and running these demanding models. But are they always the best choice? The AI hardware landscape is diverse, and a powerful, flexible alternative is rapidly gaining prominence: the Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA). In fact, according to IndustryARC, the FPGA for AI market size is estimated to reach $12.7 billion by 2030, growing at a remarkable CAGR of 13.1% [1]. This isn't just incremental growth; it's a clear signal that the industry is recognizing the unique power of programmable hardware.A great introduction to what FPGAs are and how they work. Source: Digi-Key ElectronicsIf you've ever found yourself constrained by the power consumption, latency, or rigid architecture of traditional processors, you're in the right place. This guide will serve as your comprehensive introduction to the world of FPGA in Artificial Intelligence. We'll delve into what makes them tick, how they stack up against GPUs and ASICs, and how you can leverage them to build more efficient, powerful, and future-proof AI solutions. From the data center to the edge, FPGAs are proving to be a game-changer, and by the end of this article, you'll understand why.A Comprehensive Guide to FPGAs in Artificial Intelligence: From Novice to ExpertWelcome to the definitive guide on the role of FPGAs in the world of Artificial Intelligence. Whether you're a seasoned developer, a hardware engineer, or a tech enthusiast, this article will provide a thorough overview of why FPGAs are becoming a critical component in the AI hardware stack. We will cover everything from fundamental comparisons with other processors to detailed development workflows and real-world application case studies.The synergy of programmable hardware and neural networks is unlocking new frontiers in AI.FPGA vs. GPU: The AI Inference Showdown & Selection GuideWhen it comes to AI acceleration, the most common question is: FPGA or GPU? While GPUs excel at parallel processing and have a mature software ecosystem, FPGAs offer a compelling set of advantages, especially for AI inference tasks. The key difference lies in their architecture. A GPU has a fixed architecture with thousands of cores designed for parallel tasks, whereas an FPGA is a blank slate of programmable logic blocks and interconnects that you can configure to create a custom hardware circuit perfectly tailored to your specific AI model.This architectural difference leads to significant trade-offs in performance, power efficiency, and latency. For many real-time AI applications, especially at the edge, the low and deterministic latency of an FPGA is a decisive advantage. Let's break down the comparison in a more structured way.FPGA vs. ASIC in the AI ArenaBefore we go deeper into the GPU comparison, it's important to understand another key player: the Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). ASICs are custom-designed chips built for one specific purpose. Think of Google's TPUs or specialized Bitcoin mining hardware.ASIC: Offers the absolute best performance and power efficiency for a single, well-defined task. However, it is completely inflexible. Once manufactured, its function cannot be changed. The non-recurring engineering (NRE) costs are also extremely high, making it viable only for very high-volume applications.FPGA: Offers a middle ground. It provides hardware-level performance and efficiency that is far superior to a CPU and often competitive with a GPU for specific workloads, while retaining the crucial ability to be reprogrammed. This makes it ideal for the rapidly evolving field of AI, where new models and algorithms emerge constantly.Pro Tip: Use ASICs for mature, high-volume, and stable applications. Use FPGAs for emerging, rapidly evolving applications or when you need a balance of performance, efficiency, and flexibility.How to Choose the Right FPGA for Your AI ProjectSelecting the right hardware can be daunting. Have you ever been puzzled over which device is the best fit for your budget and performance needs? Here’s a simplified decision-making guide:Analyze Your Workload: Is your primary task AI training or inference? GPUs are generally undisputed kings for training large models. For inference, especially low-latency or power-constrained inference, FPGAs are a strong contender.Evaluate Latency Requirements: Does your application require real-time response (e.g., autonomous vehicles, industrial robotics)? If yes, the deterministic low latency of an FPGA is a major advantage. FPGA AI acceleration truly shines here.Consider Power and Thermal Constraints: Are you deploying at the edge, in a vehicle, or in a device with a limited power budget? FPGAs typically consume significantly less power than high-performance GPUs, making them ideal for these scenarios.Assess I/O Needs: Does your application need to interface with various sensors or non-standard data streams (e.g., in industrial or medical devices)? FPGAs offer unmatched I/O flexibility.Factor in Development Resources: Do you have hardware description language (HDL) expertise, or do you prefer a higher-level C++/Python-based flow? Modern FPGA toolchains like Vitis AI and the Intel FPGA AI Suite have made development much more accessible to software engineers.Comparison Table: FPGA vs. GPU for AI InferenceFeatureFPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array)GPU (Graphics Processing Unit)ArchitectureReconfigurable logic blocksFixed, massively parallel coresPerformanceExcellent for specific, customized tasksExcellent for general parallel computationLatencyVery low and deterministicHigher and more variablePower EfficiencyHigh (custom circuits are very efficient)Lower (general-purpose cores are less efficient)FlexibilityExtremely high; can be reprogrammed for new modelsLow; architecture is fixedDevelopmentTraditionally requires HDL, now has high-level toolsMature ecosystem (CUDA, OpenCL)A radar chart illustrating the relative strengths of FPGAs and GPUs across different metrics. Source: BERTEN.Top FPGA AI Accelerator Cards: A 2025 ReviewAs FPGAs have grown in popularity for AI, a robust market for off-the-shelf FPGA AI accelerator cards has emerged. These PCIe cards can be easily plugged into servers in data centers or workstations to accelerate AI workloads. Here’s a look at some of the top contenders.AMD (Xilinx) Alveo SeriesAMD's Alveo cards, powered by Xilinx FPGAs, are a dominant force in the market. They are designed for data center acceleration of a wide range of workloads, including AI inference, video processing, and financial computing.Pros:High performance and memory bandwidth.Mature and comprehensive Vitis AI development environment.A large ecosystem of partner applications and pre-built models.Cons:Can have a steep learning curve for full customization.Premium pricing for high-end cards.Editor's Review: The Alveo series is a powerful and versatile choice for data center acceleration. The Vitis AI platform, in particular, has made it significantly easier for software developers to unlock the power of these cards without deep hardware expertise. It's a high-end choice for serious AI deployment.Intel Agilex FPGA SeriesIntel's Agilex FPGAs are the company's flagship line, built on advanced process technology. They are designed for a wide range of applications, from the data center to the edge, with a strong focus on AI inference.Pros:Excellent performance-per-watt.Integration with the OpenVINO toolkit provides a seamless path from model training to inference.Support for unique features like Compute Express Link (CXL).Cons:The ecosystem is still growing compared to the long-established Xilinx community.An Intel FPGA AI accelerator card designed for data center workloads. Source: Data Center Frontier.FPGA AI Chip Manufacturer Rankings & AnalysisThe FPGA market is largely a duopoly:AMD (Xilinx): The long-time market leader, Xilinx was acquired by AMD, creating a processing powerhouse. They are known for their high-performance FPGAs and a very mature software and IP ecosystem.Intel (Altera): Intel acquired Altera to bolster its portfolio. They are strong competitors, leveraging Intel's advanced manufacturing processes and integrating FPGAs tightly with their CPU and data center strategy.Other players like Lattice Semiconductor focus on low-power, small-form-factor FPGAs, which are increasingly relevant for edge AI.A Deep Dive into Mainstream FPGA AI Development ToolchainsModern toolchains have abstracted away much of the complexity of FPGA programming.AMD Vitis AI: A comprehensive development platform that allows you to take a trained model from frameworks like TensorFlow or PyTorch and deploy it on an Alveo card or Zynq SoC. It includes tools for quantization, compilation, and profiling.Intel FPGA AI Suite & OpenVINO: This tool flow leverages the popular OpenVINO (Open Visual Inference & Neural Network Optimization) toolkit. Developers can optimize their models with OpenVINO and then use the FPGA AI Suite to compile the model for an Intel FPGA, creating a highly efficient inference engine.Your First FPGA Deep Learning Project: A Step-by-Step GuideAre you ready to get your hands dirty? While a full tutorial is beyond the scope of a single article, here is the typical workflow for deploying a deep learning model on an FPGA. This process is conceptually similar for both major platforms.The General Workflow:Train Your Model: Start with a standard AI framework like TensorFlow or PyTorch to train your neural network on a GPU-powered machine.Quantize the Model: FPGAs achieve much of their efficiency by using integer arithmetic (like INT8) instead of floating-point numbers. The quantization process converts your trained model to use this more efficient format with minimal loss of accuracy. The Vitis AI Quantizer or OpenVINO's Post-Training Optimization Tool (POT) handles this.Compile the Model: This is the magic step. The AI compiler takes your quantized model and maps it onto the FPGA's programmable logic, generating a custom hardware accelerator for your specific network. It optimizes the dataflow and resource usage.Deploy and Run: The compiled model is loaded onto the FPGA. Your application, running on a host CPU or an embedded processor, sends data (e.g., an image or sensor reading) to the FPGA and receives the inference result with very low latency.The Xilinx FPGA AI Development WorkflowFor a more concrete example, here is a simplified HowTo for the Xilinx FPGA AI development process using Vitis AI:Setup: Install Vitis AI and download the appropriate pre-built reference design for your target board (e.g., an Alveo card).Quantize: Use the vai_q_tensorflow or vai_q_pytorch tool to convert your floating-point model to a quantized INT8 model.Compile: Use the vai_c compiler to compile the quantized model into an .xmodel file, which is the executable for the FPGA's AI engine (called the DPU - Deep Learning Processing Unit).Integrate: Write a host application in C++ or Python using the Vitis AI Runtime (VART) APIs. This application will load the .xmodel file, preprocess input data, send it to the FPGA for inference, and post-process the results.A Panorama of Intel's FPGA AI SolutionsIntel provides a powerful ecosystem for AI on FPGAs, centered around their Agilex and Stratix FPGAs and the OpenVINO toolkit. Their strategy focuses on providing a unified software experience across their diverse hardware portfolio (CPUs, GPUs, FPGAs).Real-World Use Case: FPGAs in Computer VisionOne of the areas where FPGAs excel is in computer vision applications. Consider a high-speed factory production line that uses cameras for quality inspection.The Challenge: Images must be captured and analyzed in real-time to detect defects. A traditional CPU/GPU system might introduce too much latency, meaning a defective product could pass by before it's flagged.The FPGA Solution: An FPGA can be connected directly to the camera's sensor. It can perform image pre-processing (e.g., noise reduction, contrast enhancement) and run a classification neural network in the hardware pipeline. The entire process, from photon to decision, happens with microsecond-level latency. This is something general-purpose processors struggle to achieve.Image: An example of an FPGA architecture for real-time video signal processing. The Rise of FPGAs in Edge Computing AIFPGA edge computing AI is one of the fastest-growing application areas. Edge devices, from smart cameras to industrial robots and medical instruments, often have strict power and thermal limits. They also require real-time responsiveness. FPGAs are a natural fit. Their ability to provide high-performance AI inference in a small power envelope is unmatched. Furthermore, their I/O flexibility allows them to interface with the myriad of sensors found in edge devices.An overview of Intel's FPGA AI Suite for inference.Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)What is the main advantage of FPGA over GPU for AI?For AI inference, the main advantages are lower latency, higher power efficiency, and greater flexibility to create custom data paths that perfectly match the AI model, which is especially beneficial for real-time and edge applications.Is it difficult to program an FPGA for AI?Historically, yes. It required expertise in hardware description languages like Verilog or VHDL. However, modern high-level synthesis (HLS) tools and AI-specific development platforms like AMD's Vitis AI and Intel's FPGA AI Suite allow software developers to work in C++, Python, and standard AI frameworks, abstracting away much of the hardware complexity.Can FPGAs be used for AI model training?While technically possible, it is not their strength. The massively parallel architecture and floating-point performance of GPUs make them far more suitable and cost-effective for training large, complex neural networks. FPGAs excel at running those models after they have been trained.What is an example of an FPGA AI accelerator card?Prominent examples include the AMD Alveo series (like the Alveo U250 or U50) and cards based on Intel's Agilex FPGAs. These are PCIe cards that can be added to servers to offload and accelerate AI inference workloads.How do I get started with an FPGA deep learning tutorial?The best way to start is by choosing a development board or card (e.g., a Xilinx Zynq-based board or an Intel dev kit) and following the official getting started guides for the Vitis AI or Intel FPGA AI Suite platforms. They provide tutorials that walk you through the entire flow with pre-trained models.ConclusionThe world of AI hardware is not a one-size-fits-all environment. While GPUs will continue to be essential, particularly for training, FPGAs have carved out an indispensable role by offering an unparalleled combination of performance, power efficiency, and flexibility. Their ability to be reconfigured to create custom, low-latency hardware accelerators makes them the ideal choice for a growing number of AI inference applications, especially at the intelligent edge.As AI continues to evolve at a breakneck pace, the adaptability of FPGAs becomes their most significant asset. Investing in a fixed-function ASIC is a risky bet when a new, superior neural network architecture might be just around the corner. FPGAs provide a future-proof solution, allowing you to adapt and redeploy your hardware for the algorithms of tomorrow. The question is no longer if you should consider FPGAs for your AI strategy, but where you can gain the most significant competitive advantage by deploying them.Ready to future-proof your AI applications? Explore our range of FPGA solutions at Kynix.com today and start your journey into the world of adaptive acceleration!References[1] IndustryARC. "FPGA for AI Market Size, Share | Industry Trend & Forecast." [Online]. Available: https://www.industryarc.com/Research/FPGA-for-AI-Market-801047

SummaryThe robot comes perfectly if they can walk more naturally for humans.However,it's not an easy job for robots and their designers. Walking on two legs is actually a complicated task,requiring several muscles to perform delicate balancing acts.That's why in spite of years of major technological advancements in the field,humanoid robots are still far from being able to get around easily and reliably. Engineers at EPFL's Biorobotics Laboratory are testing new walking algoritms on a plateform called COMAN, short for COmpliant HuMANoid. This 95-cm-tall humanoid is designed specifically for studying walking – which is why it has no head. COMAN was developed under the EU AMARSi project and is being used by several research teams. The EPFL team is looking specifically at the "brains" of the machine. "We developed algorithms that can improve the robot's balance while it's walking," says Hamed Razavi, a researcher scientist at the Biorobotics Lab.  Body One:Climbing Stairs and Opening Doors The algorithms are geared towards three types of realworld applications. The first is carrying out rescue missions in disastrous scenarios. "In environments designed by humans - like a nuclear power plant where there are stairs to climb and doors to open – humanoid robots can get around more easily than robots with wheels," says Razavi. The second is helping with tasks like carrying heavy boxes or moving objects (see box). And the third is creating exoskeletons for the disabled. "Making the robots more stable is just the tip of the iceberg," says Razavi. The next step is refining the algorithms so that the humanoids have a wider range of movement and can overcome obstacles and walk on irregular or sloped surfaces. Two:In Harmony with Symmetries One of COMAN's distinguishing features is its joints,which are integrated with elastic elements that give it greater flexibility when performing different tasks.The EPFL team came up with a novel control algorithm for the robot, based on the existing symmetries in the structure and dynamics of the robot' as well as the mathematical equations representing the robot dynamics. "You could say we're working in harmony with these symmetries rather than against them. As a result, we obtain a more natural and robust walking gait," says Razavi. The control algorithm uses sophisticated computer programs to carefully analyze the date received from the robot – including its position, velocity, joint angles, etc. – and sends appropriate commands to the motors, telling them what to do in order to maintain the robot's balance. "For example, if someone pushes COMAN, for example, our algorithms will calculate exactly where its foot should land in order to counteract the perturbation," says Razavi. Three: Humanoids Helping Humans As part of this project,Jessica Lanini and Hamed Razavi studied how two people carrying an object together are able to walk,turn and speed up in a coordinated manner - without communicating with each other.Their findings,recently published in PLOS ONE,indicate that the two people automatically synchronize their steps, like a quadruped. Now the researchers plan to apply their results to humanoid robots. Lanini explained:"Whether for manufacturing or natural disasters, we need robots that can interact with humans and help us carry heavy objects,but such robots don't exist. That's because, in order to operate safely and effectively, the robots would need to be able to make decisions and respond to unexpected circumstances." But such robots don't exist. The reason is that in order to operate safely and effectively, the robots would need to be able to make decisions and respond to unexpected circumstances." Article provided by  Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne. 

You can wire din rail terminal blocks with confidence, even if you have never done it before. Clear steps and good habits will help you avoid mistakes. Careful preparation makes your installation safe and reliable. Take your time and pay attention to every detail. When you follow each instruction, you build a strong foundation for your electrical projects. Safety and accuracy always come first.DIN Rail Terminal Blocks OverviewWhat They AreYou will find din rail terminal blocks in almost every modern electrical panel. These blocks help you connect and organize wires safely. They use a metal rail, called a DIN rail, as a base for mounting. You can slide each block onto the rail, which keeps your installation neat and secure.Terminal blocks are insulated parts that hold two or more wires together.DIN rails are standard metal rails for mounting terminal blocks inside panels.The most common way to mount terminal blocks is on a DIN rail.Terminal blocks are modular. You can snap them together to create double level terminal blocks or even more complex setups.You can choose from many connection methods, such as screw-in, spring-cage, push-in, and more.There are different types, including ground, fused, and thermocouple terminal blocks.A terminal block has a modular housing with an insulated body. It keeps your wiring safe and organized. You can use double level terminal blocks to save space and manage more wires in a small area. These blocks let you build custom configurations by snapping modules together. Double level terminal blocks are popular because they allow you to connect two circuits in the same footprint. This feature makes your installation more efficient.Why Proper Installation MattersProper installation of din rail terminal blocks keeps your wiring safe and reliable. If you rush or skip steps, you risk loose connections or even electrical fires. You need to follow each step to make sure your installation works as planned.Tip: Always double-check your wiring before you power up your system. Careful installation prevents costly mistakes.When you use double level terminal blocks, you handle more wires in a tight space. This setup makes proper installation even more important. If you do not secure each wire, you might face signal loss or equipment failure. You should always use the right tools and follow the wiring diagram. Good installation habits help you avoid problems and keep your system running smoothly.Double level terminal blocks also make future maintenance easier. You can label each wire and block, so you know exactly where each connection goes. This organization saves time during repairs or upgrades. When you focus on proper installation, you build a safer and more efficient electrical system.Tools and MaterialsEssential ToolsBefore you start wiring, you need to gather tools and materials. The right tools help you work faster and safer. Here are the most important tools for wiring DIN rail terminal blocks:Wire strippers: Remove insulation from wires without damaging them.Screwdrivers: Tighten or loosen terminal screws. Use the correct size for each screw.Crimping tool: Attach ferrules or connectors to wire ends.Side cutters: Cut wires to the right length.Needle-nose pliers: Bend or hold wires in tight spaces.Measuring tape or ruler: Measure wire lengths and spacing.Label maker or permanent marker: Mark wires and terminal blocks for easy identification.Tip: Always keep your tools organized. This helps you avoid mistakes and saves time during installation.Safety GearSafety comes first when working with electrical systems. You should always wear the right safety gear to protect yourself:Insulated gloves: Prevent electric shock.Safety glasses: Protect your eyes from wire clippings or debris.Work apron or protective clothing: Shield your body from accidental cuts or burns.Closed-toe shoes: Keep your feet safe from dropped tools or sharp objects.Note: Never work on live circuits. Always turn off the power before you begin.Materials ChecklistYou need the correct materials for a safe and reliable installation. The table below shows common DIN rail types, materials, and standards. Choose the right items for your project based on your environment and component needs.DIN Rail Type/ProfileDescription and Use CaseMaterial OptionsNotesTS35, TS32, TS15 (Top Hat)General mounting needsSteel, Stainless Steel, Aluminum, CopperTS35 is most common; TS15 for compact spacesC-section (C20, C30, C40, C50)Larger/heavier componentsSteel, Zinc-plated Steel, Stainless SteelNeeds extra mounting accessoriesG-section (32mm wide)Older, heavy componentsSteel variantsLess common todayMaterialCharacteristicsSuitabilityStainless SteelMaximum strength, corrosion resistanceHarsh environments, expensiveAnodised AluminiumGood corrosion resistance, lightweightHumid environments, less strongZinc-plated SteelCost-effective, good resistanceGeneral applicationsCopperUsed for grounding busbarsElectrical groundingStandardsDescriptionIEC/EN 60715:2017DIN rail dimensions and mountingEN50022/BS558435mm top hat railsEN50023/BS558575mm top hat railsEN50024/50025C-section railsEN50035/BS582532mm G-section railsEN50045/BS627315mm miniature top hat railsTip: Always check that your DIN rail and terminal blocks meet the correct standards for your project.Safety and PreparationTurn Off PowerYou must always turn off the power before you start any wiring work. This step keeps you safe from electric shock and other dangers. Many devices have more than one power cord, so you need to disconnect all of them. Do not trust only the power switch or control button, as these do not always cut off all electrical current. Always turn off the power at the circuit breaker or fuse box. After you switch off the power, test the system by pressing a button or using a tester to make sure no electricity flows.? Tip: Dangerous voltage can stay in the system for several minutes after you disconnect power. Wait at least five minutes before you touch any wires or double level terminal blocks.If you work with grounding connections, make sure you disconnect all power sources. You should also check that the disconnect device is easy to reach. Only start wiring when you know the area is safe.Organize WorkspaceA clean and organized workspace helps you install double level terminal blocks correctly. Arrange your tools and materials so you can reach them easily. Place your wire strippers, screwdrivers, and crimping tools within arm’s length. Good lighting lets you see small details on your wiring and double level terminal blocks.Keep enough space to move and change your posture.Use a chair with back support if you work for a long time.Adjust your table height so you do not strain your arms or back.Make sure your workspace has enough light to avoid eye strain.Ergonomic studies show that a well-designed workstation reduces fatigue and mistakes. When you set up your workspace, you work faster and make fewer errors with double level terminal blocks. Use tools that fit your hand and reduce strain, especially when you connect many wires.Review Wiring DiagramBefore you begin, review the wiring diagram for your project. This diagram shows how to connect each wire to the correct double level terminal blocks. Start by gathering all your documents and diagrams. Walk through the schematic to understand the main parts and how they connect.Check each component and make sure it matches the diagram.Look at the power and ground paths to confirm they are correct.Trace each wire from the source to the double level terminal blocks.Use a checklist to mark each completed step.Ask another person to review your work if possible.?? Note: Use color coding or labels to keep track of your wiring and double level terminal blocks. This step helps you avoid confusion and makes future checks easier.Careful review of the wiring diagram helps you avoid mistakes. You can spot errors before you start connecting wires to double level terminal blocks. This habit saves time and keeps your installation safe.Step-by-Step GuideImage Source: pexelsMount DIN RailStart your installation by mounting the din rail inside your electrical enclosure. Choose a spot that gives you enough space for all your double level terminal blocks and wiring. Use a level to make sure the rail sits straight, either horizontally or vertically. Secure the rail with screws and washers that match the enclosure material. Tighten each screw firmly, but do not overtighten. If you want extra security, use a thread locker on the screws. This step keeps the rail from shifting during operation.Tip: Always check that the din rail fits the enclosure and meets the correct standards for your project.Attach Terminal BlocksOnce you mount the din rail, you can attach the terminal blocks. Align each block with the edge of the rail. Push down or snap the block onto the rail until you hear a click. Make sure every block sits flat and does not wobble. Double level terminal blocks let you stack more connections in the same space, so plan your layout before you start. Use end brackets to keep the blocks from sliding along the rail.DIN rail terminal blocks use different connection methods. Screw clamp types need you to tighten each screw with the right amount of force. Spring clamp types use a spring to hold the wire, which reduces human error. Push-in types let you insert solid wires quickly without tools. Each method affects how you wire and install terminal blocks, so always follow the manufacturer’s instructions.Spring pressure connections allow fast, secure, and maintenance-free wiring.Proper entry angle ensures reliable insertion.Retightening screws is not needed for spring clamps, which helps avoid mistakes.Prepare and Strip WiresBefore you wire double level terminal blocks, you need to prepare the wires. Measure and cut each wire to the right length. Use a wire stripper that matches your wire gauge. Hold the tool perpendicular to the wire and strip about 10–12 mm of insulation. Do not nick or damage the wire strands. Clean wire preparation helps you make a secure connection and reduces the risk of shorts.Using the right wire stripper improves safety and gives you a clean cut. Jaw-type strippers work well for automatic stripping and reduce hand fatigue. Always check that you use the correct slot for your wire size. If the insulation does not come off cleanly, adjust the tool or try a different slot.Crimp Ferrules (if needed)If you use stranded wires or need to connect two wires at one point, crimp ferrules onto the ends. Ferrules keep the wire strands together and prevent fraying or birdcaging. This step makes your wiring connections safer and more reliable. Slide the ferrule over the stripped wire, then use a crimping tool to press it tight. Make sure the ferrule fits your wire gauge.Crimping ferrules improves connection quality and reduces failure at termination points.Ferrules come in many sizes for different wires.Using ferrules meets international standards and increases the reliability of your installation.Wire and Install Terminal BlocksNow you can wire double level terminal blocks. Insert each prepared wire or ferrule into the terminal opening. For screw clamp types, tighten the screw until the wire feels secure. For spring clamp or push-in types, push the wire in until it locks. Do not leave any bare wire exposed outside the terminal. Double level terminal blocks let you connect two circuits in the same block, so check your wiring diagram to avoid mistakes.Choose terminal blocks with current and voltage ratings higher than your system needs.Make sure the block type matches your wire size and application.Use high-quality components for better durability and safety.Secure ConnectionsAfter you connect the wires, check each connection for tightness. Gently tug on each wire to make sure it does not come loose. For screw types, tighten each screw firmly but avoid overtightening, which can damage the wire or block. For spring or push-in types, check that the wire does not slip out. A secure connection prevents overheating and keeps your system safe.Note: Reliable connections resist vibration and maintain contact force over time. Always follow the manufacturer’s guidelines for proper wiring.Label Wires and BlocksLabeling helps you keep track of every wire and block. Use clear, bold, and solvent-resistant labels. Place labels where you can read them without removing the wires. Numbered labels work better than color codes for finding faults. You can use heat shrink tubing with printed numbers or snap-on markers for extra durability. Label both the wires and the double level terminal blocks for easy maintenance.Ferrules make it easier to insert and remove wires during repairs.High-quality labels resist oil, dirt, and fading.Spare wires in cables can save time during future repairs.Test InstallationBefore you power up, test the installation. Use a multimeter to check voltage and continuity on each connection. Set the meter to the correct range and measure at the positive and negative terminals. Test each wire for breaks or loose connections. Insulate any exposed connections with heat shrink tubing or electrical tape. If you find a problem, inspect the wiring and fix it before turning on the power.Troubleshooting AspectTipScrew TighteningTighten screws securely but do not overtighten.Wire StrippingStrip wires cleanly for good contact.Terminal Block TypeUse the right block for your wire size and application.AC and DC Wiring SeparationKeep AC and DC wires apart to avoid issues.InsulationInsulate all connections to prevent shorts.Testing with MultimeterCheck voltage and continuity to confirm proper wiring.? Always verify connections before powering up. Careful testing prevents costly mistakes and keeps your installation safe.By following this step-by-step guide, you can wire double level terminal blocks with confidence. Each step builds a strong, safe, and organized electrical system.Proper Installation TipsAvoid Common MistakesYou can avoid many problems by learning about the most common errors in installation. When you work with double level terminal blocks, you need to watch for issues that can cause failures. The table below shows mistakes that often happen during installation and what they can lead to:Common ErrorWhat Can HappenMechanical damageWires or blocks break or wear outCorrosionHigh resistance and overheatingImproper clampingLoose wires and poor connectionsLoose/missing partsWires slip out or lose contactHeat damageDiscoloration and block failureContaminationArcing and unsafe connectionsImproper torqueOverheating and system failureYou should always check for these problems when you install double level terminal blocks. Use the right tools and follow the steps for proper installation. Make sure you do not overtighten screws. If you see any corrosion or damage, replace the parts before you finish your installation. Double level terminal blocks need secure and clean connections to work well.Tip: Always use a torque screwdriver for terminal screws. This tool helps you reach the correct tightness and prevents damage.Maintenance and ChecksAfter you finish your installation, you need to keep your double level terminal blocks in good shape. Regular checks help you find problems early. You should look for loose wires, signs of heat, or any dirt on the blocks. Clean the area around your double level terminal blocks to stop dust and moisture from causing trouble.Inspect all double level terminal blocks every few months.Tighten any loose screws or clamps.Replace any blocks that show signs of wear or heat damage.Check labels to make sure you can read them.Proper installation does not end when you finish wiring. You need to keep your double level terminal blocks safe and working for a long time. Good maintenance keeps your installation reliable and helps you avoid costly repairs.You can achieve a safe and organized installation by following each step carefully. Always double-check your work and use the right tools for every installation. Remember these tips:Turn off power before starting any installation.Label wires and test connections.Schedule regular checks to keep your installation reliable.Ongoing maintenance helps you prevent problems and keeps your system running smoothly.FAQHow do you choose the right DIN rail terminal block for your project?You should check the voltage and current ratings for your system. Pick a block that matches your wire size. Look for blocks that fit your DIN rail type. Always follow your wiring diagram and use blocks from trusted brands.Can you mix different types of terminal blocks on one DIN rail?Yes, you can mix types if they fit the same rail. Make sure each block matches your wire size and application. Use end brackets to keep blocks secure. Always check the manufacturer’s instructions before mixing types.What should you do if a wire keeps slipping out of the terminal block?First, check if you stripped the wire to the correct length. Make sure you tightened the screw or clamp properly. If the problem continues, use a ferrule or replace the block. Never force a wire into a damaged terminal.How often should you inspect and maintain DIN rail terminal blocks?You should inspect your terminal blocks every three to six months. Look for loose wires, heat marks, or dirt. Tighten screws and clean the area. Regular checks help you catch problems early and keep your system safe.

Catalog IntroductionComponentsArduino Code Introduction The idea of this project is to create an Arduino based home security alarm system that can be used to monitor and control the various appliances in the house. The main purpose of the system is to detect any unusual activity and notify the user about it in an efficient manner. The system will also use a web server to push notifications to mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. The project consists of an Arduino Uno board connected to a Debounce shield which contains a piezo buzzer, LED, power supply and other components necessary for interfacing with Arduino Uno board. A passive infrared sensor, or PIR, is a Pyroelectric device that senses motion. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as a motion detecting sensor. It may be able to detect motion by detecting variations in the infrared levels emitted by nearby objects. This gadget is a basic motion-activated alarm. Its brain is an Arduino microcontroller. It is connected to a PIR motion sensor, a buzzer, a resistor, and two external connectors. The system is very portable because it is entirely battery-powered. As soon as you get the code, you may link all of the external components. This is the easiest thing to do with a breadboard. To check everything out, you can create bogus connections.  The whole system Is powered by 12V DC power supply which powers all other components except Arduino Uno board itself. The MCU receives digital commands from Arduino Uno through SCI interface and sends appropriate analog or digital signals on its pin according to the command received by it. This project has been inspired by many previous projects that use Arduino boards for controlling various electronic devices such as lamps, lights etc., but this project focuses more on controlling various appliances. The Arduino Uno Is based on the ATmega328 chip, which has built-in USB support for serial communications. It also has a built-in 5V power regulator that allows it to be powered directly from the USB connection or from a battery. Components 1Arduino2Motion Sensor3LED’s4Buzzer5LCD Module Arduino Code#include  <LiquidCrystal.h>   int ledPin = 13;                int inputPin = 7;               int pirState = LOW;             int val = 0;                    int pinSpeaker = 10;           LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2);                           void setup() {  pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);  pinMode(pinSpeaker, OUTPUT);  Serial.begin(9600);  lcd.begin(16, 2);  lcd.setCursor(2, 0);                                              lcd.print("P.I.R Motion");                                        lcd.setCursor(5, 1);                                             lcd.print("Sensor");                                              delay(4000);  lcd.clear();  lcd.setCursor(2, 0);                                              lcd.print("Displaying");                                       lcd.setCursor(2, 1);                                              lcd.print("A");                                         delay(5000);                                                      lcd.clear();                                                    lcd.setCursor(0, 0);      lcd.print("Processing Data.");      delay(3000);      lcd.clear();      lcd.setCursor(3, 0);      lcd.print("Waiting For");      lcd.setCursor(3, 1);      lcd.print("Motion....");     }void loop(){  val = digitalRead(inputPin);  if (val == HIGH) {                digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH);      playTone(300, 300);    delay(150);        if (pirState == LOW) {      Serial.println("Motion detected!");      lcd.clear() ;      lcd.setCursor(0, 0);                                                 lcd.print("Motion Detected!");             pirState = HIGH;    }  } else {      digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW);      playTone(0, 0);      delay(300);         if (pirState == HIGH){            Serial.println("Motion ended!");      lcd.clear() ;      lcd.setCursor(3, 0);      lcd.print("Waiting For");      lcd.setCursor(3, 1);      lcd.print("Motion....");            pirState = LOW;    }  }}// duration in mSecs, frequency in hertzvoid playTone(long duration, int freq) {    duration *= 1000;    int period = (1.0 / freq) * 100000;    long elapsed_time = 0;    while (elapsed_time < duration) {        digitalWrite(pinSpeaker,HIGH);        delayMicroseconds(period / 2);        digitalWrite(pinSpeaker, LOW);        delayMicroseconds(period / 2);        elapsed_time += (period);    }}