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Introduction 18650 is a lithium-ion battery, where 18 means a diameter of 18mm, 65 means a length of 65mm, and 0 means a cylindrical battery, that is, they get their name from their size. As for scale, it is larger than an AA battery. 18650 battery is a rechargeable battery, has voltage of 3.7V and has capacity between 1800mAh and 3500mAh. You may also know 26650 battery and 21700 battery, what are they? and what is the difference between them? Intro To 18650 Li-ion Cells Catalog Introduction Ⅰ 18650 Battery Basic 1.1 Characteristic 1.2 Protective Function 1.3 Basic Parameters 1.4 Merits and Drawbacks Ⅱ 26650 Battery 2.1 Intro Info 2.2 Basic Parameters 2.3 18650 Battery vs 26650 Battery Ⅲ 21700 Battery 3.1 Info about 21700 3.2 Basic Parameters 3.3 21700 Battery Advantages 3.4 18650 Battery vs 21700 Battery Ⅳ Technical Specifications Comparison Ⅴ FAQ Ⅰ 18650 Battery Basic 1.1 Characteristic ① Large capacity: The capacity of a lithium battery is at least 1200mah or more, or even 3600mah, while the average battery cell is only about 500mah.② High energy storage efficiency and good stability: It can still maintain full performance output under 70°, and there is generally a protection circuit inside to prevent the battery from burning out.③ No memory effect: It is not necessary to discharge all the remaining power before charging, and it can be charged and discharged at any time, which is convenient to use.④ High charge and discharge cycle life: The number of cycles of lithium batteries is tens of thousands and the high temperature resistance is very good.⑤ Environmental protection, no toxic substances: Non-toxic, harmless, non-polluting, certified by RoHS quality. Figure 1. 18650 Battery 2200mAh 3.7V 1.2 Protective Function ① Overcharge protection: When the lithium battery is overcharged, the internal temperature rise of the battery will continue to rise, and a detection system for the battery voltage is added. When the battery overcharge voltage reaches a certain value or time period, the overcharge function will work and stop automatically to protect the battery.② Over-discharge protection: It means that the battery is always in an overloaded output state. Generally, there is discharge protection. At this time, the battery will be in a standby mode.③ Overcurrent protection: The overcurrent protection value can be adjusted, some are a few amperes, and the setting is selected according to the actual situation.④ Short-circuit protection: When the battery is short-circuited, the overcurrent protects the battery from burning.In addition to these four protection functions, some also have functions such as temperature and balance. Generally, the battery has a built-in PCM protection system with multiple protection functions. 1.3 Basic Parameters Number Item Parameter 1 Standard Voltage 7.4V 2 Rated Capacity 2200mAh 3 Continuous Working Current 1-3A 4 Overcurrent Protection Value 2-5A(adjustable) 5 Affordable Equipment Power ≤22V 6 Overcharge Protection Voltage 4.25±0.025V/Cell 7 Discharge Protection Voltage 2.50±0.05V/Cell 8 Charging Mode Constant-current and Constant-voltage 9 Maximum Charging Voltage 8.45V-8.55V 10 Recharging Current 0.2℃-0.5℃ 11 Charging Temperature 0~45℃, 45~85%RH 12 Discharge Temperature -20~55℃, 46~85%RH 13 Storage Temperature and Humidity Range Short term: more than one month -20℃~+55℃, 45~85%RH Medium term: more than three months -20℃~+45℃, 45~85%RH Long term: within one year -5℃~+20℃, 45~85%RH 14 Dimensions Brightness Reference Sample Length Reference Sample Thickness Reference Sample 15 Weight <120g   1.4 Merits and Drawbacks ✅Merits1) Large capacityThe capacity of 18650 battery is generally between 1200mah ~3600mah, and the general battery capacity is only about 800mah. If combined into a 18650 battery pack, it can easily break through 5000mah.2) Long LifeThe 18650 battery has a long service life, and the cycle life can reach more than 500 times during normal use, which is more than twice that of ordinary batteries.3) High Safety PerformanceThe 18650 battery has high safety performance. In order to prevent the short circuit of the battery, the positive and negative electrodes of the 18650 batteries are separated. Therefore, the possibility of short-circuiting has been reduced to the extreme. A protection board can be added to avoid overcharging and overdischarging of the battery, which can also prolong the service life of the battery.4) High VoltageThe voltage of 18650 lithium battery is generally 3.6V, 3.8V and 4.2V, which is much higher than the 1.2V voltage of nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride batteries.5) No Memory EffectIt is not necessary to empty the remaining power before charging, which is convenient to use.6) Small Internal ResistanceThe internal resistance of the polymer battery is smaller than that of the general liquid battery, and the internal resistance of the domestic polymer battery can even be below 35mΩ, which greatly reduces the self-consumption of the battery and prolongs the standby time of the mobile phone. This polymer lithium battery that supports large discharge current is an ideal choice for remote control models, and has become the most promising product to replace nickel-metal hydride batteries.7) It can be combined in series or in parallel to form a 18650 lithium battery pack.8) Wide Range of Use18650 batteries can be employed in Notebook computers, walkie-talkies, portable DVDs, instrumentation, audio equipment, model aircraft, toys, video cameras, digital cameras and other electronic equipment.❎Drawbacks1) The biggest disadvantage of the 18650 battery is that its size has been fixed, and it is not very well positioned when it is installed in some notebooks or some products. Of course, this can also be said to be an advantage, which is compared to other polymer lithium batteries, etc. This is a disadvantage in terms of the customizable and changeable size of lithium batteries. Compared with some products with specified battery specifications, it has become an advantage.2) The production of 18650 batteries requires a protection circuit to prevent the battery from being overcharged and causing discharge. Of course, this is necessary for lithium batteries, which is also a common drawback of lithium batteries, because the materials used in lithium batteries are basically lithium cobalt oxide materials, and lithium batteries made of lithium cobalt oxide materials cannot be discharged at large currents, and their safety is poor.3) The production conditions of 18650 batteries are high, compared with general battery production, they have high requirements for production conditions, which undoubtedly increases the production cost.   Ⅱ 26650 Battery 2.1 Intro Info The 26650 battery is a cylindrical lithium battery with a diameter of 26mm and a length of 65mm. It is used in power tools, lighting, wind and solar energy storage, electric vehicles, toys, instrumentation, ups backup power supply, communication equipment, medical equipment and military lights. Figure 2. 26650 Battery Size 2.2 Basic Parameters Cycle performance: 2000 times (1C charge/1C discharge, capacity retention rate ≥80%, 100% DOD)Maximum continuous discharge current: 9.6APulse discharge current: 15A, 5sOperating temperature: Charge: 0°C ~ 55°C, discharge: -20°C ~ 60°CStorage temperature: -20°C ~ 45°CBattery weight: 86g (approx.)Nickel-cobalt-manganese ternary lithium-ion 26650 single-cell nominal voltage is generally: 3.6VNominal capacity: 4500mAh (capacity range 4500-4650mAh)AC internal resistance: ≤30mΩ (plus PTC type)Charging conditions: Cut-off voltage 4.2±0.05V, cut-off current 0.01C. (Note: Charge with 0.5C constant current to 4.2V, and charge with constant voltage until the current drops to 0.01C and cut off)Discharge cut-off voltage: 2.75VCycle performance: 500 times (1C charge/1C discharge, capacity retention rate ≥70%, 100% DOD)Maximum continuous discharge current: 13APulse discharge current: 15A, 5sOperating temperature: Charge: 0°C ~ 55°C, discharge: -20°C ~ 60°CStorage temperature: -20°C ~ 45°CBattery weight: 92g (approx.) 2.3 18650 Battery vs 26650 Battery 1) Different Rated CapacityThe rated capacity of IFR26650 is 3000mAh, and the rated capacity of IFR18650 is 1100~1400mAh.2) Different DiametersThe diameter of the IFR26650 is 26mm, and the diameter of the IFR18650 is 18mm. 3) Different Reference QualityThe production test quality of IFR26650 is 94 grams, and the IFR18650 is 45 grams.18650 lithium batteries are used in lighting, industrial supporting lithium battery packs, power tool batteries, electric bicycle batteries, power lithium battery packs, etc., while 26650 batteries are used in integrated solar street light lithium battery packs, energy storage stations, solar energy storage batteries and so on.The 26650 battery will gradually replace the 18650 battery in the application of power batteries. And with the large-scale use of lithium batteries, it will inevitably be a trend that larger-capacity 26650 batteries replace the trendy 18650 lithium batteries in the 3C era.   Ⅲ 21700 Battery 3.1 Info about 21700 The 21700 battery is a cylindrical battery with a diameter of 21mm and a height of 70.0mm. Its charge density is currently the highest energy density and lowest cost battery in the world, and it is cost-effective. Figure 3. 21700 Battery 4000mAh 3.7V   3.2 Basic Parameters The positive electrode is converted to nickel, the performance is not affected, the consistency is good, and it can be directly used as a battery pack.*Rechargeable Li-ion Cell*Size: Diameter 21mm, Length 70mm*Weight: about 65g*Rated voltage: 3.6V*Standard capacity: 4800mAh*Internal resistance: about 13 milliohms*Charging voltage: 4.2V*Discharge cut-off voltage: 2.5V*Discharge current: 10A (15-20A can be discharged instantaneously).*Applications: flashlights, scooters, LED lights, miner's lamps, lighting products, power banks, mobile power supplies, backup power supplies, computers, mobile devices, cars, bicycles, communications, medical, energy storage, solar energy, etc. 3.3 21700 Battery Advantages 1) The energy density of the 21700 type battery is higher than that of the well-known 18650 type battery. The number of single cells in use can be greatly reduced, and the cost will be reduced after grouping. The capacity of a 18650 battery is about 2600-3600 mAh, while a 21700 battery supports more than 4000 mAh, even 5000mAh has appeared on the market. And the larger capacity is increasingly beneficial to extend the battery life of modern devices.2) The single volume of the rechargeable battery is increased by 35%. Taking the Tesla 21700 rechargeable battery as an example, the energy of a single battery can be increased by 34.8ah, an increase of 35%.3) The net weight of the system software is estimated to be reduced by 10%. The total capacity is more than 21,700. With the increase of single volume and the increase of single energy ratio, the total number of batteries required under the same kinetic energy can be reduced by about 1/3, and the total number of metal components and electrical components selected for the battery pack can reduce the difficulty of managing information systems coefficient. After converting SDI (Samsung Digital Interface) to the new 21700 rechargeable battery, it was found that the system software reduced the net weight by 10% over the existing battery. 3.4 18650 Battery vs 21700 Battery The 18650 rechargeable battery has high reliability and stability, and the performance index of the 21700 battery is much higher than that of the 18650 battery. In addition, compared with other battery models, the raw materials, processing technology and technical steps of the 21700 rechargeable battery are more advanced than the 18650 rechargeable battery level. Therefore, the 18650 and 21700 production lines are the best match.   Ⅳ Technical Specifications Comparison 18650 Battery 26650 Battery 21700 Battery Nominal Voltage: 3.6V Voltage: 3.2V Voltage: 3.7V Nominal Capacity: 2,850 mAh Technologie: Lithium Iron Phosphate Capacity: 3500- 5600mAh Minimum Discharge Voltage: 3V Dimension: 26.2 (Ø) x 65.6 (H) mm Operating voltage: 2.5- 4.2V Maximum Discharge current: 1C Weight: 80g Cutoff voltage: 2 - 2.5V Charging Voltage: 4.2V (maximum) Standard capacity: 2300mAh - 0.5C (current value of 2300mA at 1C°) Weight: 55gms to 75gms Charging current: 0.5C Max. charge voltage: 3.65 ± 0.05 V Charge density (Energy per cell): 10.5- 13.7Wh Charging Time: 3 hours (approx) Inner resistance: ≤15mΩ Charge discharge cycle: 500 to 2000 Charging Method: CC and CV Max. discharge voltage: 2.0V Continuous discharge current: 20- 35 amps Cell Weight: 48g (approx) Cycle characteristic: 1500 (C/5) - 300 (10C) Optimum /Minimum charging time: 2.5 hrs to 3.5 hrs Cell Dimension: 18.4mm (dia) and 65mm (height) Working temperature: 0 ~ 55°C Discharge: -20°C ~ 60°C Charging voltage: 4.2V- 5V   Ⅴ FAQ 1. Are 18650 batteries banned?Consumers should not buy or use individual, loose 18650 lithium-ion battery cells without protection circuits due to possible fire risk, according to a warning just issued by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). ... Samsung and Sony also warn consumers against using the cells. 2. What battery replaces the 18650?21700 battery18650 batteries are generally 3.6/3.7 volts and have capacity ratings from 2,300 to 3,600 mAh. 21700 – were designed to be a larger and higher capacity replacement for 18650 batteries. Like the 18650, the 21700 has a nominal voltage of 3.6/3.7V. The 21700 was designed to replace the 18650 in EV battery packs. 3. Are AA batteries the same as 18650?No, they are slightly larger and have completely different formula. The 18650 battery is a lithium-ion cell classified by its 18mm x 65mm size, which is slightly larger than a AA battery. They're often used in flashlights, laptops, and high-drain devices due to their superior capacity and discharge rates. 4. What makes 18650 batteries explode?The safety problem of 18650 lithium-ion battery is burning or even exploding. The root cause of these problems lies in the thermal runaway inside the battery. In addition, some external factors such as overcharge, fire source, extrusion, puncture, short circuit, etc. Will cause the battery to explode. 5. How many hours does a 18650 battery last?A standard lithium ion 18650 battery is rated to last between 300 to 500 cycles before noticing a large performance drop. That is a pretty wide range and we'll discuss some things you can do to extend your batteries life to 500 or even more cycles. 6. How can I charge my 18650 without a charger?You need a regulator to apply a minimal charge, and fortunately, small incandescent lamps in light bulbs and decorative lamps are the perfect regulators for this task. You must connect a cable to the lamp you are using and the other end of the cable will be connected to a hot battery, such as the car's battery. 7. Why are 18650 batteries so popular?The 18650 battery has a voltage of 3.6v and has between 2600mAh and 3500mAh (mili-amp-hours). These batteries are used in flashlights, laptops, electronics and even some electric cars because of their reliability, long run-times, and ability to be recharged hundreds of times over. 8. Are 21700 batteries better than 18650?The stronger heating and lower resistance of 21700 cells than the 18650 results in higher polarization in the 18650 and deviations between the voltage curves for the two formats at higher C rates. The 21700 has about 50% greater capacity and energy density than the 18650 for discharge rates up to about 3.75C. 9. Does Tesla use 21700 batteries?Tesla and Panasonic's 21700 cell was huge news when it was announced in 2017. Tesla doesn't currently use 18650 cells, though; it now uses the 21700 standard with cells measuring 21mm by 70mm. ... The new Tesla battery has gone up in size again, this time far more significantly to 4680 or 46mm x 80mm. 10. Does Tesla use 18650 batteries?Currently, Tesla mainly uses the Panasonic 18650 lithium-cobalt-acid battery, the entire battery contains thousands of independent cells, the battery costs about 135 $ / kWh, to provide 233 W / kg of energy. The future of Tesla plans to launch a new 20,700 lithium battery pack. 11. Are 18650 and 26650 batteries interchangeable?Based on their voltage and current outputs, yes, the 18650 and 26650 batteries are interchangeable. However, the two battery types are very different in size. The 26650 has a much greater diameter, so it will not fit in items designed for the slimmer 18650 battery. 12. What battery can I use instead of 26650?Well, 18650s rechargeable lithium-ion batteries can be used alone or with other batteries too including 26650 batteries in order to build battery packs and power banks or devices used for recharging a device. So, depending on the purpose, both 26650 and 18650 battery can be used together. 13. How long does it take to charge a 26650 battery?around 20 hoursIt may take around 20 hours to charge the 26650 battery fully. 14. Are 18650 batteries the same as AAA?AAA Batteries vs 18650 BatteriesAt first, AAA and 18650 batteries don't have much in common - AAA batteries are cylindrical batteries 10.5 mm (0.41 inch) in diameter and 44.5 mm (1.75 inches) in length, while 18650 batteries are cylindrical batteries 18.6 mm (0.73 inches) in diameter and 65.2 mm (2.56 inch) in length. 15. Can I use regular batteries instead of 18650?Technically yes, you can even buy an adapter that takes 3 AA's to replace an 18650, I use them in my tactical torch if the 18650 dies. However AA batteries are generally much lower capacity than an 18650 so they don't tend to last anywhere near as long. 16. Is 26650 battery same as C battery?They may appear the same and or the same size, but the C battery has a 1.5V nominal voltage while the 26650 lithium battery has a 3.6V or 3.7V nominal voltage. 17. What is the best 26650 battery for Vaping?The Hohm Grown 2 is our top pick for 26650s. It is an accurately rated 30A battery and its large capacity will have it running for much longer than your typical 18650 cell. The 26650 battery has been used for vaping for quite some time now. 18. How many 21700 batteries are in a Tesla?Currently, 4,416 (2170) cells are placed inside Tesla Model 3/Y Long-Range battery packs. In contrast, there will only be 960 cells required to fill the same space. 19.What does 18650 mean on a battery?lithium-ion batteryAn 18650 battery is a lithium-ion battery. The name derives from the battery's specific measurements: 18mm x 65mm. For scale, that's larger than an AA battery. The 18650 battery has a voltage of 3.6v and has between 2600mAh and 3500mAh (mili-amp-hours).

CatalogIntroductionⅠ How to Wire a Relay?Ⅱ Why Use a Relay?Ⅲ Relay Wiring DiagramⅣ 4 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram vs 5 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram4.1 The Main Difference between 4 or 5 Pin Relays4.2 4 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram4.3 Sample Wiring Diagrams for a 4 Pin Normally Open Relay4.4 Why to Use a 4 Pin Relay for Driving Lights4.5 5 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram4.6 How To Use 5 Pin Relay4.7 5 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram for lightsⅤ FAQIntroductionIn layman's terms, a relay is an electromagnetic switch that is typically used to switch the power supply either automatically or manually. In this post, I'll go over the fundamentals of 4 and 5 pin relay wiring diagrams. The relay comes in a variety of shapes and sizes. It can be based on the pins or contacts, ampers, or voltage ratting (AC or DC). These contacts are pins 4, 5, 8, 11, 14, and so on. However, we have two coil pins on each pin. Where we supply the necessary ratting current. As an example, suppose we have a 12-volt DCV relay. As a result, we will supply 12 volts of DC (Direct current) to the relay coil. And if we have the 220 ACV, we can supply the relay coil with 220 volts AC (alternating current).The remaining pins and contacts are known as main contacts or switching contacts. The relay switching pins include the following: common, NC (normally open), and NO (normally close).Ⅰ How to Wire a Relay?How To Wire A Relay - Quick TipStill confused? See the full video here. Ⅱ Why Use a Relay?There are several reasons why you might need or want to use a relay:Using a lower current circuit to replace a high current circuit.This is the most common reason, and it is useful when an in-line switch or existing circuit cannot handle the required current. For example, if you wanted to install some high-powered work lights that activate with the headlights, there's a chance they'd exceed the capacity of the existing loom.Cost SavingBecause high current capacity wiring and switches are more expensive than lower current capacity versions, using relays reduces the need for more expensive components.Activating more than one circuit from a Single InputA single input signal from one part of an electrical system (e.g., central locking output, manual switch, etc.) can be used to activate one or more relays, which then complete one or more other circuits, allowing you to carry out multiple functions from a single input signal.Carrying Out Logic FunctionsWhen linked together, electromagnetic relays can be used to perform logical operations based on specific inputs (for example, latching a +12V output on and off from a momentary input, flashing alternative left and right lights, and so on). Although electronic modules have largely replaced these logical functions in OEM designs, it can still be useful, fun, and often more cost-effective to use relays to perform them in some after-market projects (particularly where you have a bespoke application).Ⅲ Relay Wiring DiagramA simple wiring diagram of a relay is shown here to help you understand how it works in a circuit.Relay wiring diagramLet's talk about this relay wiring diagram now.It is the relay that is powered by the DC supply. Pin 1 is the magnetic coil's positive pin. Pin 2 is the coil's negative pin. As a result, we used an SPST switch to connect a DC power source across terminals 1 and 2. We can use this switch to turn on or off the power supply to the relay coil whenever we want.Terminal 3 is shared by NO and NC contacts. Terminal 5 is designated as NO, while Terminal 4 is designated as NC. This means that under normal circumstances, terminal 3 is connected to terminal 4. When we apply power to the coil, terminal 3 is connected to terminal 5.As you can see, we connected two LEDs here. The NO terminal is connected to the red LED, and the NC terminal is connected to the green LED. So, under normal circumstances, the green LED will glow, but when we apply power to the relay by turning on the switch, the red LED will glow.Ⅳ 4 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram vs 5 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram4.1 The Main Difference between 4 or 5 Pin RelaysA 4 pin relay controls a single circuit, whereas a 5 pin relay switches power between two circuits.4 Pin Relay2 pins (85 & 86) control the coil and 2 pins (30 & 87) switch power on a single circuit in a 4 pin relay. Four-pin relays are available in two configurations: normally open and normally closed. When the coil is activated, a normally open relay turns on the power to a circuit. When the coil is activated, a normally closed relay turns off the power to the circuit.5 Pin Relay5 pin relays have two pins (85 & 86) for controlling the coil and three pins (30, 87 & 87A) for switching power between two circuits. They have connection pins that are both normally open and normally closed. Power is switched from the normally closed pin to the normally open pin when the coil is activated.4.2 4 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram The diagram of a four-pin relay is depicted in the image below. This circuit diagram will be used later to wire a relay for driving lights.4 Pin Relay Wiring DiagramYou'll need to use a fuse to connect the relay's Pin 30 to the 12V battery for driving lights. We're not directly connecting pin 30 to the battery here; instead, we're using a fuse. This is because the fuse protects us from overcurrents.If there is a fault in the driving light circuit, the fuse protects the burning of lights and other circuits from current overshoots.Pin 85 of the relay is grounded, while Pins 87 and 86 are switching pins. You can turn on the main beams of the driving light using this 4 pin relay by switching the battery connections to either circuit connected with pin 86 or 87 of the relay.4.3 Sample Wiring Diagrams for a 4 Pin Normally Open Relay Sample Wiring Diagrams for a Normally Open RelayExample 1. 4 pin (normally open) relay with the switch on the control circuit's positive side.  Example 2. 4 pin (normally open) relay with the switch on the control circuit's negative side.   Note: These circuits have been simplified to demonstrate the function of a relay and thus do not include the fuse protection that would be required. Relay coil terminals have no polarity unless the relay coil is protected by a diode (inside the relay), in which case the coil terminal wired to the diode's anode must be connected to negative.4.4 Why to Use a 4 Pin Relay for Driving LightsThe main reason for installing this relay system is to keep dangerous voltages outside of your cabin or driving area.The high voltage required by your headlight, which is supplied by the battery, is kept inside the engine compartment by a relay.Simply put, a relay is a switch that is controlled by another switch. The switch installed in the vehicle's sitting cabin, on the front side of the driver, operates on very low voltage. As you can see, this voltage is not high enough to harm the driver or other electronic components. This switch provides power to the relay, which is essentially an electromagnet. It will also control the high current circuit that is directly connected to the headlights.This is how a low current circuit controls a high current circuit, keeping both the driver and the car electronics safe, and why we need a relay in our headlights!4.5 5 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram A pin relay is SPDT relay, which means that the contacts of relay single pole double throw. In single pole double throw relay, we have one pin is common, 2nd are normally close and 3rd are normally open. Two pins for the coil. This relay can be used for different types of controlling or switching. Such as for lights, fan, fuel pump, etc. Here I showed the 5 pin relay wiring diagram. 5 pin relay wiring diagramIn the diagram above, I've depicted a single pole double throw relay (5 pin relay). Not that his relay can be 5 volts DCV, 12 volts DCV, 24 volts DCV, and so on, depending on the coil's ratting voltage. In the above 5 pin relay diagram, pins 1 and 2 are for the coil, pin 3 is the common pin, pin 4 is normally closed, and pin 5 is normally open.4.6 How to Use 5 Pin RelayA relay can be used for a variety of switching purposes. If you want to control electrical devices automatically, a relay is the best option. When we talk about relays, as I previously stated, there are various types of relays for various applications. This post, however, is about the 5 pin relay. As illustrated by the 5 pin relay diagram. This has three main pins. As opposed to a single pole double throw.So when we say single pole double throw, we mean that it has a common point as well as two other points (NC and NO).To switch something from a single pole double throw relay, you must use the common and other points. For example, if you require that the light bulb be turned off when the relay operates. Then you must use a common, normally closed pin. If you want to turn on the light bulb, you must use the common and normally open pins. I've shown how to wire a 5 pin relay for lights in this article.4.7 5 Pin Relay Wiring Diagram for lightsIn the 5 pin relay wiring diagram below, I show how to turn on lights when the relay is activated and how to turn them off when the relay is deactivated.Similarly, if you want to control or wire a fan with a relay, you can use the same method. It is important to note that the ratted voltage must be applied to the relay coil. If your relay is powered by 12 volts DCV. Then you must supply the 12-volt DCV.Ⅴ FAQ1. What costs more than lower current capacity versions?High current capacity wiring and switches.2. What can you use to activate one or more relays?A single input from one part of an electrical system.3. How can you use a single input from one part of an electrical system?To activate one or more relays that then complete one or more other circuits and so carry out multiple functions from one input signal.4. What will switch power on for a circuit when the coil is activated?A normally open relay.5. What is the main purpose of installing a 4 Pin Relay for Driving Lights?To keep dangerous voltages outside of your cabin or driving place.   

Introduction IGBT and MOSFET are fully controlled devices and are voltage-driven, that is, the device is turned on or off by controlling the gate voltage. In fact, the structure of the IGBT is an NPN-type MOSFET plus a P-junction, that is, an NPNP structure, which is a P-type BJT driven by MOS in principle. So what is the difference between them? What is the specific connection of them? MOSFET BJT or IGBT - Brief Comparison Catalog Introduction Ⅰ MOSFET & IGBT Review Ⅱ Si IGBT vs SiC MOSFET Ⅲ Different Requirements for Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET 3.1 ON & OFF State 3.2 Short-Circuit Protection 3.3 Interference and Delay Ⅳ IGBT Working Principle by Analogy with MOSFET Ⅴ FAQ Ⅰ MOSFET & IGBT Review MOSFET is a metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor, or metal-insulator-semiconductor. The source and drain of it can be swapped, and they are both N-type regions formed in the P-type backgate. In most cases, these two regions are the same, even if the two ends are reversed, it will not affect the performance of the device. Such devices are considered symmetrical. According to the polarity of its "channel" (working carrier), MOSFET can be divided into two types: N-type and P-type, usually also called NMOSFET and PMOSFET, abbreviations including NMOS, PMOS, etc.IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor), is a composite fully controlled voltage-driven power semiconductor device composed of BJT (bipolar transistor) and MOS. Have the advantages of high input impedance of MOSFET and the low on-voltage drop of the GTR. When the GTR saturation voltage is reduced, the current carrying density is large, but the driving current is large; the MOSFET driving power is small, the switching speed is fast, but the on-state voltage drop is large, and the current carrying density is small. The IGBT combines the advantages of the above two devices, and the driving power is small and the saturation voltage is reduced. In simple terms, an IGBT is equivalent to a thick base PNP transistor driven by a MOS. Figure 1. N-MOSFET Architecture Ⅱ Si IGBT vs SiC MOSFET Since the differences between IGBT and MOSFET in structure, working principle and application range are quite detailed, it is impossible to express clearly in one sentence. Next, we will compare the differences between silicon (Si) IGBTs and silicon carbide (SiC) MOSFETs in detail.The electrical parameters and characteristics of Si IGBT and SiC MOS drivers are quite different. The requirements for driving of SiC MOS are also different from those of traditional silicon devices. They have the characteristics of low on-resistance and small switching loss, which can reduce device loss and improve system efficiency, and more suitable for high frequency circuits. It is widely used in new energy vehicle motor controller, vehicle power supply, solar inverter, charging pile, UPS, PFC power supply and other fields.The difference between the two is mainly reflected in the GS turn-on voltage, GS turn-off voltage, short-circuit protection, signal delay and anti-interference, as follows: Characteristic Si IGBT SiC MOSFET Drive Requirements Switching Frequency Low, >30kHz High, 50~500kHz 1) Use high power gate resistors. 2) Optimize the cooling environment. 3) Improve the efficiency of the DC-DC conversion circuit and reduce the overall loss of driving power. Threshold Voltage 5V-6V 1.6V-4.5V Negative pressure shutdown/Miller clamp to prevent false turn-on Switching Time 300ns 50ns 1) Use digital isolation driver chip, the signal transmission delay can reach 50ns, and it has relatively high consistency, and the transmission jitter is less than 5ns. 2) the low transmission delay push-pull chip is selected. Switching-On Time 15V 15V~22V 1) Priority is given to stabilizing the negative voltage to ensure that the shutdown voltage is stable. 2) A negative voltage clamping circuit is added to ensure that it does not exceed the standard during shutdown. Switching-Off voltage -15V~-5V -5V~0V Short-Circuit Withstand Time <10μs 2~5μs A diode or a resistor string is used to detect short circuits, and the shortest short-circuit protection time is limited to about 1.5μs. CMTI 15kV/μs 100kV/μs 1) The common mode anti-interference ability reaches 100kV/μs to transmit the isolation chip for signal transmission. 2) The optimized isolation transformer design is adopted, and its primary side and the secondary side are shielded to reduce mutual crosstalk. 3) The Miller clamp is used to prevent the influence of the switch of the same bridge arm.   Ⅲ Different Requirements for Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET For a fully-controlled switching device, configuring an appropriate on-off voltage is of great significance for the safety and reliability of the device. Due to the difference between IGBT and MOSFET, the requirements for the two are also different.IGBT is a field-controlled device whose turn-on and turn-off are determined by the voltage between the gate(G) and the emitter(E). The working principle of MOS tube (enhancement mode NMOSFET) is to use VGS to control the amount of "induced charges" to change the condition of the conductive channel, and then to control the drain current. 3.1 ON & OFF State 1) Silicon IGBT: Silicon IGBTs of various manufacturers have the same turn-on and turn-off voltage requirements.· The typical turn-on voltage is required to be 15V.· The shutdown voltage value range is -5V~-15V, and customers can choose the appropriate value according to their needs. The common values are -8V, -10V, -15V.· Prioritize stable positive voltage to ensure stable turn-on.2) Silicon carbide MOSFET: Different manufacturers have different switching voltage requirements:· The turn-on voltage is required to be higher than 22V~15V.· The shutdown voltage is required to be higher -5V~-3V.· Prioritize negative voltage stabilization to ensure stable turn-off voltage.· Increase the negative voltage clamping circuit to ensure that it does not exceed the standard when it is turned off. 3.2 Short-Circuit Protection The switching device has the risk of short circuit during operation, and configuring a suitable short circuit protection circuit can effectively reduce the damage caused by the short circuit during the use of the switching device. Compared to Si IGBTs, SiC MOSFETs have shorter short-circuit withstand times.1) Silicon IGBTThe time of surrender and short-circuit of Si IGBT is generally less than 10μs. When designing the short-circuit protection circuit of it, set the detection delay and corresponding time of short-circuit protection to 5-8μs.2) SiC MOSFETGenerally, the short-circuit withstand capability of SiC MOSFET modules is less than 5μs, and short-circuit protection is required to work within 3μs. A diode or a resistor string is used to detect short circuits, and the protection time is limited to about 1.5μs. 3.3 Interference and Delay 1) The impact of high dv/dt and di/dt on the system.When the switching action is performed under the condition of high voltage and high current, the switching of the silicon carbide MOSFET device will generate high dv/dt and di/dt, which will affect the driver circuit. It is very important to improve the anti-interference ability of the driver circuit for the reliable operation of the system. the following way to achieve.· Add common mode choke coil and filter inductor to the input power supply, which reduce the interference of driver EMI to low voltage power supply.· A low-pass filter is added to the rectification part of the secondary side power supply, which reduce the interference of the driver to the high-voltage side.· Use an isolation chip with a common mode immunity of 100kV/μs for signal transmission.· Optimize the isolation transformer design, and use shielding layer on primary side and secondary side to reduce crosstalk between each other.· Use Miller clamp to prevent the influence of the switch of the same bridge arm. 2) Low transmission delayUsually, the application switching frequency of silicon IGBT is less than 40kHZ, and the recommended application switching frequency of SiC MOSFET is greater than 100kHz. The increase of application frequency makes MOS require the driver to provide lower signal delay time. The transmission delay of the SiC MOSFET drive signal should be less than 200ns, and the transmission delay jitter should be less than 20ns, which can be achieved by the following methods.· Using digital isolation driver chip, the signal transmission delay can reach 50ns, and it has relatively high consistency, and the transmission jitter is less than 5ns.· Select push-pull chips with low transmission delay and short rise & fall time. Due to the conductance modulation effect, the on-state specific resistance of high voltage SiC IGBTs is much lower than that of power SiC MOSs, and does not change much as the blocking voltage rating increases. When the conductance modulation effect is fully exerted, the on-state voltage drop of the IGBT drift region is only related to the bipolar diffusion coefficient and bipolar lifetime of the carriers, and will not change with the increase of the on-current. When the operating temperature changes, the on-state voltage drop of the SiC high voltage IGBT decreases with the increase of the junction temperature. This is mainly because the bipolar lifetime of the extra carriers in the SiC epitaxial layer will increase with the increase of temperature. Although the diffusion coefficient will shrink to some extent with the increase of temperature, the greater prolongation of lifetime will eventually make the the bipolar diffusion length increased, thereby reducing the on-state voltage drop. It is especially true in n-channel devices.This is in sharp contrast to the larger increase in the forward voltage drop of the power MOS at high temperature. Silicon carbide p-channel IGBTs have higher on-state voltage drop than n-channel IGBTs at the same current density due to their larger channel resistance, but their volt-ampere characteristics do not change much with temperature. As for the applications, this is undoubtedly an advantage. Figure 2. Comparison of characteristics between SiC IGBT and power MOS under the Same Condition of Withstand Voltage of 20kV. It is not difficult to calculate from the intersection of the equal power consumption curve in the figure and the on-state characteristic curves of these devices: corresponding to the same power consumption of 300W/cm2, the ratio of the on-state current of the silicon carbide IGBT to the silicon carbide power MOS versus p-channel devices and n-channel devices are different, they are 1.5 and 1.8 at room temperature, respectively, and increase to 2.7 and 3.5 at 225°C, indicating that high-voltage and high-current SiC IGBTs are more suitable for high-temperature applications.In a word, compared with Si IGBT, SiC MOSFET not only improves system efficiency, power density and operating temperature, but also puts forward higher requirements for the driver. In order to make silicon carbide MOSFET better in the system, it is necessary to give SiC MOSFET a appropriate driver.   Ⅳ IGBT Working Principle by Analogy with MOSFET IGBT is a Darlington pair composed of GTR and MOSFET: part of which is MOSFET driver, and the other part is thick-base PNP transistor. Figure 3. IGBT Architecture Its simplified equivalent circuit is shown in the figure below, and RN in the figure is the modulation resistance in the base area of the PNP transistor. It can be clearly seen from this circuit that the IGBT is a composite device of Darlington configuration composed of transistors and MOSFET, where the transistor in the figure is a PNP transistor, and the MOSFET is an N-channel field effect transistor, so the IGBT of this structure is called an N-channel IGBT, and its symbol is N-IGBT. Similarly there are P-channel IGBTs, namely P-IGBTs. Figure 4. Simplified Equivalent Circuit The electrical graphic symbols of the IGBT are shown in the figure. IGBT is a field-controlled device, and its turn-on and turn-off are determined by the voltage UGE between the gate and the emitter. When the gate-emitter voltage UCE is positive and greater than the turn-on voltage UCE (th), a channel is formed in the MOSFET and is a PNP. The N-type transistor provides the base current to turn on the IGBT. At this time, the holes (minority carriers) injected into the N- region from the P+ region modulate the conductance of the N- region, reduce the resistance RN of the N- region, and make the IGBT also has a small on-state voltage drop. When no signal or reverse voltage is applied between the gate and emitter, the channel in the MOSFET disappears, the base current of the PNP transistor is cut off, and the IGBT is turned off. It can be seen that the driving principle of IGBT is basically the same as that of MOSFET.① When UCE is negative: J3 junction is in reverse bias state, and the device is in reverse blocking state.② When UCE is positive: UC< UTH, the channel cannot be formed, and the device is in a forward blocking state; UG> UTH, an N-channel is formed under the insulating gate, and conductance is generated in the N- region due to the interaction of carriers modulation so that the device is conducting forward. Figure 5. Hybrid Switch Using Si IGBT and SiC MOSFET 1) ONThe structure of IGBT silicon is very similar to that of power MOSFET, and the main difference is that JGBT adds a P+ substrate and an N+ buffer layer, in terms of it, one MOS drives two bipolar devices (devices with two polarities). The application of the substrate creates a J junction between the P, and N+ regions of the tube. When the positive gate bias causes the inversion of the P base region under the gate, an N-channel is formed, and an electron flow occurs at the same time, and a current is generated exactly in the manner of a power MOSFET. If the voltage produced by this electron flow is in the range of 0.7V, J1 will be forward biased, some holes will be injected into the N- region, and the resistivity between N- and N+ will be adjusted, which reduces the power conduction the total loss of the pass and initiates a second charge flow. The end result is the temporary emergence of two different current topologies within the semiconductor layer: an electron flow (MOSFET current), and a hole current (bipolar). When UCE is greater than the turn-on voltage UCE(th), a channel is formed in the MOSFET to provide base current for the transistor, and the IGBT is turned on. 2) On-State Voltage DropThe conductance modulation effect reduces the resistance RN and reduces the on-state voltage drop. The so-called on-state voltage drop refers to the tube voltage drop UDS when the IGBT enters the on-state, and this voltage decreases with the rise of UCS. 3) Shut DownWhen a negative bias is applied to the gate or the gate voltage is lower than the threshold value, the channel is disabled and no holes are injected into the N-region. In any case, if the current of the MOSFET decreases rapidly during the switching phase, the collector current decreases gradually. This is because there are still minority carriers in the N layer after the commutation starts. This reduction in residual current value (wake) is entirely dependent on the charge density at turn-off, which in turn is related to several factors, such as the number and topology of dopants, layer thickness and temperature. The decay of minority carriers makes the collector current have a wake waveform. Collector current will cause increased power dissipation and cross-conduction problems, especially on devices that use freewheeling diodes.Considering that the wake is related to the recombination of minority carriers, the current value of the wake should be closely related to the Tc, IC of the chip, and has a close relationship with the mobility of holes. Therefore, depending on the temperature reached, it is feasible to reduce the undesirable effects of this current on the end equipment design. When a back pressure or no signal is applied between the gate and the emitter, the channel in the MOS disappears, the base current of the transistor is cut off, and the IGBT is turned off. 4) Reverse BlockingWhen a reverse voltage is applied to the collector, the junction is reverse biased and the depletion layer expands to the N-region. Because the thickness of this layer is reduced too much, an effective blocking ability will not be obtained, so this mechanism is very important. In addition, if the size of this region is increased too much, the voltage drop will continuously increase. 5) Forward BlockingWhen the gate and emitter are shorted and a positive voltage is applied at the collector terminal, the junction is controlled by the reverse voltage. At this time, the depletion layer of the N drift region is still subjected to the externally applied voltage. 6) LatchICBT has a parasitic PNPN thyristor between the collector and the emitter. Under special conditions, this parasitic device will turn on. This phenomenon increases the amount of current between the collector and the emitter, reduces the controllability of the equivalent MOSFET, and often causes device breakdown problems. The thyristor turn-on phenomenon is known as IGBT latch-up. Specifically, the causes of such defects vary, but are closely related to the state of the devices.   Ⅴ FAQ 1. Are there SiC IGBT?Along with the increasing maturity for the material and process of the wide bandgap semiconductor silicon carbide (SiC), the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) representing the top level of power devices could be fabricated by SiC successfully. 2. Where are SiC MOSFETs used?The primary automotive applications for SiC power MOSFETs, diodes, and modules are onboard electric vehicle (EV) chargers, DC/DC converters, and drivetrain inverters. Plug-in hybrid EVs and battery EVs (BEVs) use onboard chargers to “refuel” the vehicle battery either at home or at a public charging station. 3. What is SiC MOSFET?Silicon Carbide (SiC) MOSFETs exhibit higher blocking voltage, lower on state resistance and higher thermal conductivity than their silicon counterparts. SiC MOSFETs are designed and essentially processed the same way as silicon MOSFETs. 4. Can MOSFET replace IGBT?Due to the higher usable current density of IGBTs, it can usually handle two to three times more current than a typical MOSFET it replaces. This means that a single IGBT device can replace multiple MOSFETs in parallel operation or any of the super-large single power MOSFETs that are available today. 5. What are the advantages of silicon carbide?Silicon carbide MOSFETs have a critical breakdown strength that is 10x of silicon, and silicon carbide MOSFETs can operate at much higher temperatures, provide higher current density, experience reduced switching losses, and support higher switching frequencies. 6. What are the advantages of silicon carbide (SiC) over silicon (Si)?The advantage of SiC starts in the material itself having a 10x higher dielectric breakdown field strength, 2x higher electron saturation velocity, 3x higher energy bad gap and 3x higher thermal conductivity than Silicon. 7. What is the difference between silicon and silicon carbide?Silicon has a breakdown voltage of around 600V, while silicon carbide can withstand voltages 5-10 times higher. ... Silicon carbide can switch at nearly ten times the rate of silicon, which results in smaller control circuitry. 8. What is SiC in semiconductor?SiC (silicon carbide) is a compound semiconductor composed of silicon and carbide. SiC provides a number of advantages over silicon, including 10x the breakdown electric field strength, 3x the band gap, and enabling a wider range of p- and n-type control required for device construction. 9. Which is better MOSFET or IGBT?When compared to the IGBT, a power MOSFET has the advantages of higher commutation speed and greater efficiency during operation at low voltages. What's more, it can sustain a high blocking voltage and maintain a high current. ... The IGBT is also a three terminal (gate, collector, and emitter) full-controlled switch. 10. Why use an IGBT instead of a MOSFET?The main advantages of IGBT over a Power MOSFET and a BJT are: 1. It has a very low on-state voltage drop due to conductivity modulation and has superior on-state current density. ... It canbe easily controlled as compared to current controlled devices (thyristor, BJT) in high voltage and high current applications. 11. Why is MOSFET preferred?Mosfet provides a very good isolation between the gate and the other two terminals compared to bjt. Mosfet can handle more power compared to BJT. The mosfet has a very low power loss and a high speed. Voltage signals can easily operate a mosfet, so it is used in many digital circuits. 12. Where are MOSFETs used?Power MOSFETs are commonly used in automotive electronics, particularly as switching devices in electronic control units, and as power converters in modern electric vehicles. The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a hybrid MOS-bipolar transistor, is also used for a wide variety of applications. 13. Why IGBT is very popular nowadays?With its lower on-state resistance and conduction losses as well as its ability to switch high voltages at high frequencies without damage makes the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor ideal for driving inductive loads such as coil windings, electromagnets and DC motors. 14. How many terminals are in a MOSFET?four terminalsThe MOSFET has four terminals: drain, source, gate, and body or substrate. 15. Why is IGBT bipolar?IGBTs is a bipolar device that utilizes two types of carriers, electrons and holes, resulting from the complex configuration that features a MOSFET structure at the input block and bipolar output, making it a transistor that can achieve low saturation voltage (similar to low ON resistance MOSFETs) with relatively fast. 16. How many types of IGBT are there?two typesInsulated Gate Bipolar Junction Transistor (IGBTs) are normally classified into two types. (ii) Punch Through [PT-IGBT]. These IGBTs are also referred to as symmetrical and asymmetrical IGBTs. These varieties of IGBT differ widely with regard to their fabrication technology, structural details etc. 17. What is full MOSFET?MOSFET stands for metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor. It is a field-effect transistor with a MOS structure. Typically, the MOSFET is a three-terminal device with gate (G), drain (D) and source (S) terminals. 18. How does an IGBT work as a switch?As defined by being a transistor, an IGBT is a semiconductor with three terminals which work as a switch for moving electrical current. Just as the word “gate” suggests, when voltage is applied to the gate, it opens or “turns on” and creates a path for current to flow between the layers. 19. Can I use transistor instead of MOSFET?It very much depends on the application. BJTs can be cheaper than FETs. This is especially true for high voltage switching where the much larger die area of FETs make them much more expensive. 20. Can IGBT conduct in reverse direction?No. The IGBT cannot conduct current in the reverse direction (from emitter to collector) even with a positive Vge applied to it, because it has a bipolar-type structure. ... However, the gate has no control over this reverse current flow; it is simply the forward biasing of the diode that allows it.

IntroductionⅠ Operating Principle of Fuel Pump Relay1.1 How does the Fuel Pump Relay Work?1.2Working Principle of Vehicle Electric Fuel PumpⅡ Fuel Pump Relay Testing and ReplacementⅢ Fuel Pump Relay Inspection and Maintenance Structure FlowⅣ Detection Methods for Faults without Fault Memory of Fuel Pump RelayⅤ Inspecting the Fuel Pump Relay UnitⅥ What Causes Fuel Pump Relays to Fail?Ⅶ How to Prevent Fuel Pump Relay from Getting Damaged after Replacement?Ⅷ How to Diagnose a Bad Fuel Pump Relay?Ⅸ FAQIntroductionWhat is the fuel pump relay? How does it work? There are some measures to deal with the failure of fuel pump relay. Just keep reading our guide to find out!Ⅰ Operating Principle of Fuel Pump RelayWhen the engine starts, the fuel pump relay turns off. The oil pressure sending unit supplies power to the fuel pump at this point. When you turn off the ignition, the fuel pump relay is re-engaged for a short period, allowing the fuel pump to power down and shut off.Figure 1 Operating principle 1.1 How does the Fuel Pump Relay Work?A fuel pump relay functions similarly to a light switch in your home, turning on the lights.The main difference is that there is no direct contact with the switch; rather, the switch is triggered when a sufficient amount of electricity accumulates.The fuel pump is in charge of regulating the pressure within the engine to ensure proper operation.When the engine requires fuel, the pressure is increased to start the injection of fuel into the engine.If there was insufficient pressure, the engine would not receive the necessary fuel, which could result in a misfire.The difference is that instead of directly turning on the internal switch, the control circuit is turned on. This coil then generates an electromagnetic field, closing a pair of metal contacts within the relay. The metal contacts are linked to a controlled circuit, which ultimately activates the fuel pump.1.2 Working Principle of Vehicle Electric Fuel PumpThe electric fuel pump assembly is installed and immersed in fuel in the fuel tank. It is controlled by the ECM and sucks fuel from the fuel tank, filters, and regulates pressure before delivering it to the fuel manifold.The electric fuel pump assembly consists of a fuel pump, a fuel filter, an engine oil pressure regulator, and an oil level sensor.A DC motor, a vane pump, and an end cover comprise the electric fuel pump (integrated check valve, pressure relief valve, and anti-electromagnetic interference components).Figure 2 The wiring diagram of the electric fuel pumpWhen the ignition switch is turned on, the main relay is activated to provide 12V power to the fuel pump relay. At this point, the fuel pump relay will be activated for approximately 2 seconds, causing the electric fuel pump to operate for 2 seconds. Raise the oil pressure in the fuel main pipe to a safe level before starting the engine.When you turn off the engine, the electric fuel pump shuts down. At this point, the one-way valve is closed to maintain residual pressure in the fuel line, making it easier to restart the engine. When the oil pressure on the oil outlet side becomes excessively high, the safety valve opens to drain the fuel, preventing the fuel pressure from becoming excessively high.Figure 3 Electric fuel pumpThe vehicle's current electric fuel system is a non-return system. An oil pressure regulator integrated with the fuel pump assembly adjusts the fuel system pressure to around 380kPa. The fuel that has passed through the fuel filter is redirected to the oil pressure regulator. If the oil pressure is too high, open the regulator's oil return valve to drain the oil and stabilize the oil pressure to a certain value. To detect the fuel level, an oil level sensor is installed in the fuel pump assembly. The sliding resistance principle is used by the oil level sensor. When the oil level drops, the float floating on the oil surface moves downward, causing the contact of the sliding resistance to move downward, and the sensor's resistance value to rise. The oil level sensor has a resistance range of 3108. (depending on the car models).Ⅱ Fuel Pump Relay Testing and Replacementvideo: How to test and replace a fuel pump relayHow to test fuel pump relay? You will learn from this video. In the same time, the principles shown here apply to most vehicles.Ⅲ Fuel Pump Relay Inspection and Maintenance Structure FlowDetection methods for faults without fault memory of Fuel pump relay1. Fuel pump relay fault detection and maintenance schemeThe fault memory of engine control unit is read by detector. Short circuit of fuel pump control to positive pole, short circuit of fuel pump control to ground and open circuit of fuel pump control are three common fault memories related to fuel pump relays.For the above three fault modes, the following detection and maintenance methods are formulated respectively:2. Fuel pump control for positive pole short circuit repair method.First, disconnect the fuel pump relay plug and measure the voltage between the relay slot 2 pins and grounding when the ignition switch is turned on. The rated value should be between -1V and 1V; if the measured value is not within this range, a short-circuit to the positive pole of the connecting 2-pin excitation line exists. If the measured value falls within the above-mentioned rated range, there is no short-circuit to the positive pole. Then, look for any disconnection. Turn off the ignition switch first, then unplug the engine ECU plug, and measure the resistance between pin 2 of the relay slot and pin 80 of the engine ECU plug (for the new Jetta model, the engine ECU controls the fuel pump relay ground terminal through pin 80). If the resistance exceeds 30, the circuit is open. If the resistance is less than 30, the circuit from the fuel pump relay to the engine ECU is satisfactory. Based on the above findings, the fault can only be found in the relay itself, and the relay should be replaced.3. Method for repairing a fuel pump control to a ground short circuit faultTurn off the ignition, disconnect the fuel pump relay, and measure the resistance between relay slot pin 2 and the engine ground point. If the resistance value is less than 9MQ, the excitation line has been short-circuited to the ground. If the resistance value is greater than 9MQ, the line is in good condition. The short-circuit point must be located within the relay, and the relay must be replaced.4. Fuel pump control open-circuit fault repair methodCheck to see if the appropriate fuses and fuel pump relays are properly installed, dirty, or broken. When no fault is found, remove the fuel pump relay and measure the voltage between pins 1 and 3 of the fuel pump, as well as the engine grounding (i.e. check the power supply of the relay). If the measured voltage is less than 11.5V, it means that the wire connecting the detection point to the battery is broken. If the measured voltage is greater than 11.5V, the voltage supply is functioning normally. The relay actuator and fuel pump should then be checked. If the fuel pump still does not work, the fault is not with the relay. It should keep checking the line between the relay and the fuel pump. If the problem persists after removing the line fault, the fault can only be in the fuel pump, which should be replaced: If the fuel pump is powered on after bridging 1 and 5 Pins, the fault is limited to the active part of the relay and the relay itself, and the detection method is the same as 1" Maintenance method of fuel pump control for Positive pole Short-circuit Fault ".Ⅳ Detection Methods for Faults without Fault Memory of Fuel Pump RelayWhen the detector is used to diagnose the fuel pump executive components, the following three execution results will be obtained. We will examine the three different execution results item by item:1. The fuel pump is turned on and running.In the absence of a fault code, the correct activation of the fuel pump indicates that the system is fault-free.2. When the fuel pump relayis activated, the action of the fuel pump's non-reactive relay indicates that the excitation line is normal. The relay, the positive power supply, and the fuel pump are the three components that must be tested. Pull out the fuel pump relay, measure its slot 1 foot and 3 feet to engine ground between voltage (i.e., check the relay power supply): if the measured voltage is less than 11.5 v, the related testing point between thebattery wire break, if the voltage is greater than 11.5 v, the voltage supply is normal. Checked the oil pump parts, using the transfer line bridge slot on the 1,5 foot: if the fuel pump still does not work, the fault is not in the relay, should continue to check the path of the relay to the fuel pump, still did not solve the problem, after exclusion of line fault, fault can only be in the fuel pump, fuel pump needs to be replaced, if the bridge after 1, 5-foot pump electricity work, illustrates the fault in the relay, the fuel pump relay must be replaced.3. The relays for the fuel pump and the fuel pump are not working, necessitating a thorough inspection of all relevant parts. Check to see if the appropriate fuses and fuel pump relays are properly installed, dirty, or broken. Remove the engine ECU and short-circuit the terminal connecting the engine ECU plug to the fuel pump relay excitation line (pin 2) to ground if no fault is found (for the new Jetta, the corresponding terminal number is 80). If the fuel pump is running at this time (the relay must act), the system from the relay to the fuel pump is functioning normally, and the fault may be in the engine ECU. The phenomenon is the same if the fuel pump is not running and only the relay is activated "The fuel pump relay is turned on.  If both the relay and the fuel pump are not operational, the relay will not function normally even if the engine ECU sends the grounding excitation signal. At this point, the power supply, executive, and excitation parts of the relay must be checked one by one.The method described above for detecting a fuel pump relay can also be used as a guide for detecting other relays. We need to conduct specific analyses for different models during the actual maintenance process.Ⅴ Inspecting the Fuel Pump Relay UnitWhen you open the unit, the first thing you should do is a smell for a faint burnt odor. This would indicate whether or not the temperature has risen too high in there.Next, look for burn marks that indicate an excessive level of resistance. They're usually found near the offending connections or components on the circuit board.Then, place your thumb on the large relay on the circuit board and wiggle it. If the big part of the relay wiggles at all (not the small hinged part), the solder joints are bad and must be re-soldered.Figure 4 bad-solder-jointsExamine the contact points between the relay's hinged and stationary parts. It's difficult to say how much pitting or discoloration is normal, but all of the ones I've seen (including the perfectly good ones) have some pitting. If they're really bad, sanding them may be able to extend their life, but it's impossible to say how much.Check that all of the solder joints on the solder side of the circuit board are smooth and shiny. Poor soldering is indicated by a dull or crinkly appearance.Ⅵ What Causes Fuel Pump Relays to Fail?A fuel pump relay failure can occur for a variety of reasons, including:1The relayshave windings that can be burned due to high voltage short circuits.2A faulty relay is caused by a faulty coil or faulty connections.3Any unfavorable situation, from environmental dust to a sudden voltage increase, can harm the fuel pump relay.4Failure of the relay may occur due to the breaking of inner terminals, corrosion around the electrical contacts, breaking of coil wires, and other factors.5Overheating of the relay may cause it to melt. A burned relay may also cause a meltdown in the fuse panel. It is frequently difficult to remove, and as a result, the entire fuse box must be replaced.l?6When there are a lot of electrical failures, the fuel pump usually wears out at the same rate.7Before you replace the relay, you must first identify and resolve the issue that caused it to fail.8The electric fuel is powered solely by the engine, not by the fuel pump relay. By remaining submerged in the fuel, the relay only keeps the fuel temperature cool.9Keep your fuel tank full at all times to avoid shortening the life of your fuel pump relays.10When you turn off your vehicle's engine with a low fuel level, the engine can drain from the priming chamber into the fuel delivery system.11Without enough fuel, thefuel pumpwill run hot and unprimed, potentially damaging the pump motor. As a result, when the tank is full of gas, a fuel pump relay turns off.12The engine should not be started if the fuel pump relay is still hot.13Parking one's car on the front porch in the sun is a common blunder. It heats the engine, causing the fuel pump relay to backfire. Finally, it takes time for the vehicle to start and for the fuel to cool.14The relays have a winding that is frequently burned due to the high voltage. When the relays burn out or become damaged, they must be replaced.15Because the fuel pump relay controls the fuel pump, any fault with the relay can cause problems with the pump, causing the vehicle to drive incorrectly.Ⅶ How to Prevent Fuel Pump Relay from Getting Damaged after Replacement?Overloading of relays. Every relay has a maximum capacity, and exceeding that capacity may cause the contacts to fail.Figure 5 Fuel pump relay replacementHigh discharged currents may flow from power supplies with capacitors in their outputs. This heats and melts the contacts. Current limiters solve the majority of these issues, but they do not control capacitive discharge effects. They may also take some time to respond because the limiters use a feedback loop as part of the power supply control system.Digital I/O cards such as models 40-411, 40-412, and 40-413 can help to reduce the occurrence of welds caused by faulty test targets.Frequently, an excellent high-quality relay solves the majority of the problems.Keeping the relay clean is also good preventative maintenance. Allow the relay to dry after gently rubbing it with ethanol.Ⅷ How to Diagnose a Bad Fuel Pump Relay?Typically, car problems are caused by faulty fuel pump relays. A faulty relay is the result of a faulty coil or connection. To determine the cause of the bad relay, pull it out of the socket.Figure 6 How to tell if fuel pump relay is badConsult a service manual to locate your fuel pump relay. Before beginning, this task, learn more about how a multimeter or ohmmeter works.Check the Coilstep 1: Set up the multimeter to read the ohms. The ohm scale resembles a horseshoe in shape.Step 2: To test the multimeter, touch the meter leads together. You should get a reading of zero ohms.When the test leads across the relay's coil are touched, they should read around 70 ohms. Assume the meter reads zero or infinite ohms. In that case, the coil is either shorted or open at the same time, and your relay is faulty.Examine the ContactsStep 1: Connect the test leads from one side of the relay coil to the chassis ground.Step 2: Connect the other test lead to the vehicle's battery. The relay should be turned on, and you should hear or feel a click.      5. Connect the multimeter to the relay's COMMON and NORMALLY OPEN contacts, and the relay should read zero. If this does not occur, the contacts are not connected because the relay is faulty.                 6. Exercise caution when connecting your test leads to the battery. If the battery positive is too close to the ground connection, a spark can occur.      7. You will require the following items:Your relay's diagramMultimeterTwo alligator clips on both ends of two electronic test leadsⅨ FAQ1. What could result in a misfire?The engine would not receive the necessary fuel.2. What is responsible for regulating the pressure within the engine?The fuel pump.3. How much power does the main relay provide to the fuel pump relay?12V4. How does the electric fuel pump operate when the ignition switch is turned on?Raise the oil pressure in the fuel main pipe to a safe level before starting the engine5. What happens when the oil pressure on the oil outlet side becomes excessively high?The safety valve opens to drain the fuel6. Where are burn marks usually found?Near the offending connections or components on the circuit board.7. What is the first thing you should do when you open the Fuel Pump Relay Unit?Place your thumb on the large relay on the circuit board and wiggle it8. What can high discharged currents flow from power supplies with?Capacitors9. What solves the majority of the problems?An excellent high-quality relay 10. What do you need to know about a bad fuel pump relay?How a multimeter or ohmmeter works.11. What do you need to do to diagnose a bad fuel pump relay?Set up the multimeter to read the ohms12. What is the reading of a bad fuel pump relay?Zero ohms.

Introduction Everyone has heard of FPGA more or less, such as Bitcoin mining, or Microsoft said before that it will use FPGA instead of CPU in the data center. So what exactly is it? Why use it? Compared with CPU, GPU, and ASIC, what are the characteristics of FPGA? FPGA is a chip that can reconfigure circuits and is a hardware reconfigurable architecture. Through programming, users can change its application scenarios at any time, and it can simulate various parallel operations of hardware such as CPU and GPU. By interconnecting with the high-speed interface of the target hardware, the FPGA can complete the low-efficiency part of the target hardware, thereby achieving acceleration at the system level. What Is an FPGA? Catalog Introduction Ⅰ FPGA vs CPU vs GPU vs ASIC Ⅱ Five Advantages of FPGA 2.1 Performance 2.2 Time-to-Market 2.3 Cost 2.4 Stability 2.5 Long-Term Maintenance Ⅲ New Applications of FPGA Ⅳ Development Trend of FPGA Ⅴ FAQ Ⅰ FPGA vs CPU vs GPU vs ASIC The core difference between FPGA and CPU, GPU, ASIC chips, etc. is that the connection and logic layout of the underlying operation unit are not solidified. Users can program the logic unit and switch array through EDA software to configure the function, so as to realize the integration of specific functions.FPGA appears as a semi-custom circuit in the field of application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC), which not only solves the shortcomings of custom circuits, but also improves the limited number of original programmable device gate circuits. Compared with ASIC chips, an important feature of FPGA is its programmable characteristics, that is, the user can specify the FPGA to realize a specific digital circuit through the program. Furthermore, FPGA chips are one of the best choices for small batch systems to improve system integration and reliability. Figure 1. FPGA Basic Structure So why is FPGA so fast? This is all because the computer's CPU(central processing unit) and GPU(graphics processing unit) belong to the von Neumann structure, with instruction decoding and execution, and shared memory. FPGAs, on the other hand, are instruction-free and memory-free architectures that make FPGA chips much more energy-efficient than CPUs or even GPUs. Figure 2. Von Neumann Structure In the von Neumann architecture, since the execution unit (such as the CPU core) may execute any instruction, so an instruction memory, a decoder, an operator of various instructions, and branch and jump processing logic are required. Due to the complex control logic of the instruction stream, it is impossible to have too many independent instruction streams. Therefore, the GPU uses SIMD (single instruction, multiple data) to allow multiple execution units to process different data at the same pace, and the CPU also supports SIMD instruction. The function of each logic unit of the FPGA has been determined during reprogramming, and no instructions are required. Figure 3. Computer CPU If the GPU is used for acceleration, in order to fully utilize the GPU computing, the batch size cannot be too small, and the delay will be on the order of milliseconds. Using FPGA to accelerate, only microsecond-level PCle delay is required. Why is FPGA so much lower latency than GPU? This is basically an architectural difference. FPGAs have both pipeline parallelism and data parallelism, while GPUs have almost only data parallelism (with limited pipeline depth).For example, FPGA chips can change the running hardware design on the chip every few seconds, while chips such as CPU and ASIC are already solidified when they leave the factory and cannot be changed. If ASIC, CPU, GPU, etc. are built buildings, and the routes of rooms, corridors, and stairs in the building have been fixed, while the interior of FPGA is similar to the magic staircase in Hogwarts, which can change the route of room to room at any time. In addition, FPGA does not need to compile the instruction system at the software application level like CPU and GPU. To program FPGA, use hardware description language, and directly compile and burn it into a combination of transistor circuits, that is, directly use transistor circuits to implement user algorithms.The biggest feature of FPGA is its flexibility. It can realize any digital circuit you want and can customize various circuits. Reduce the shackles of special chips, truly tailor-made for your own products, you can flexibly change the design during the design process, and have field programmability, so it is especially suitable for applications that require continuous changes in physical operation logic, such as AI algorithm optimization, data center applications, etc. Architecture Throughput（int ops） Delay Flexibility CPU ~1T N/A Very High GPU ~10T ~1ms High FPGA(Stratix V) ~1T ~1us High FPGA(Stratix 10) ~10T ~1us High ASIC ~10T ~1us Low The FPGA is set up by the RAM stored on the chip to reset its working state, so the on-chip RAM needs to be programmed when working. Users can use different programming methods according to different configuration modes, which can be said to be very flexible and convenient. The FPGA has the following configuration modes:🔺Parallel Mode: Parallel PROM, Flash configures FPGA.🔺Master-Slave Mode: One PROM configures multiple FPGAs.🔺Serial Mode: Serial PROM configures FPGA.🔺Peripheral Mode: The FPGA is used as a peripheral of the microprocessor and programmed by the microprocessor. Computational performance compared with CPU: For example, Stratix series FPGAs perform integer multiplication operations, and their performance is equivalent to that of a 20-core CPU, and for floating-point multiplication operations, their performance is equivalent to an 8-core CPU.Computational performance compared with GPU: FPGA performs integer multiplication and floating-point multiplication operations. There is an order of magnitude difference in performance compared to GPU. The computing performance of GPU can be approached by configuring multipliers and floating-point operation components. Figure 4. CPU and GPU Architecture Diagram The core advantage of FPGA for performing computation-intensive tasks: tasks such as search engine sorting and image processing have strict requirements on the return time limit of results, and it is necessary to reduce the delay of computing steps. Under the traditional GPU acceleration scheme, the data packet size is large, and the delay can reach the millisecond level. Under the FPGA acceleration scheme, the PCIe latency can be reduced to the microsecond level. Driven by long-term technology, the data transmission delay between CPU and FPGA can be reduced to less than 100 nanoseconds.The FPGA can build the same number of pipelines (pipeline parallel structure) for the number of data packet steps, and the data packets can be output immediately after being processed by multiple pipelines. The GPU data parallel mode relies on different data units to process different data packets, and the data units need to be input and output consistently. For stream computing tasks, the FPGA pipeline parallel structure has a natural advantage in latency. FPGA is used to process communication-intensive tasks and is not limited by network cards. It outperforms CPU solutions in terms of packet throughput and delay, and has strong delay stability. Therefore, FPGAs have obvious advantages over CPUs when performing large data processing tasks with high repetition rates.By programming the FPGA, the user can change the internal connection structure of the chip at any time to realize any logic function. Especially in industries with immature technical standards or rapid development and change, FPGA can effectively help enterprises reduce investment risks and sunk costs, and is a functional and economical choice. Figure 5. Computer GPU With the evolution of intelligent market demand, highly customized chips (ASIC SoC) have led to a sharp increase in market risks due to the large scale of non-repetitive investment and long R&D cycle. Relatively speaking, FPGA has advantages in the field of parallel computing tasks, and can replace some ASICs in the field of high performance and multi-channel. The demand for multi-channel computing tasks in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) drives the evolution of FPGA technology to the mainstream. Figure 6. ASIC SoC Ⅱ Five Advantages of FPGA 2.1 Performance Taking advantage of hardware parallelism, FPGAs break the sequential execution model and complete more processing tasks per clock cycle, surpassing the computing power of digital signal processors (DSPs). BDTI(Big Data Test Infrastructure), a well-known analysis and benchmarking company, has published benchmarks that show that in some applications, FPGAs can handle many times more processing power per dollar than DSP solutions. Controlling input and output (I/O) at the hardware level provides faster response times and specialized functionality to meet application needs. 2.2 Time-to-Market Despite increasing time-to-market constraints, FPGA technology offers flexibility and the ability to rapidly prototype. Users can test an idea or concept and complete verification in hardware without going through the lengthy manufacturing process of custom ASIC design. This allows users to make incremental modifications and iterate FPGA designs in hours, saving weeks. Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware provides different types of I/O connected to user-programmable FPGA chips. The increasing popularity of high-level software tools reduces the learning curve and abstraction layers, and often provides useful IP cores (pre-built functions) for advanced control and signal processing. 2.3 Cost The non-recurring engineering (NRE) cost of custom ASIC design far exceeds the cost of FPGA-based hardware solutions. The huge initial investment in ASIC design shows that OEMs need to ship thousands of chips each year, but more end users need custom hardware capabilities that enable the development of tens to hundreds of systems. The nature of programmable chips means that users can save on manufacturing costs as well as long lead times for assembly. System requirements change from time to time, but the cost of changing the FPGA design is negligible compared to ASCI's huge expense. 2.4 Stability Software tools provide the programming environment, and FPGA circuits are the real "hard" implementation of programming. Processor-based systems often contain multiple layers of abstraction that can schedule tasks and share resources among multiple processes. The driver layer controls hardware resources, while the operating system manages memory and processor bandwidth. For any given processor core, only one instruction can be executed at a time, and processor-based systems face the risk of tightly time-bound tasks taking over each other at all times. FPGAs, on the other hand, do not use an operating system, and have true parallel execution and deterministic hardware that focuses on each task, reducing the chance of stability issues. 2.5 Long-Term Maintenance As mentioned above, FPGA chips are field-upgradable without the time and expense involved in redesigning ASICs. For example, digital communication protocols contain specifications that can change over time, and ASIC-based interfaces can create maintenance and forward compatibility difficulties. Reconfigurable FPGA chips can accommodate future modifications. As a product or system matures, users can enhance functionality without spending time redesigning hardware or modifying board layouts.   Ⅲ New Applications of FPGA At present, the FPGAs mainly produced by Xilinx and Altera with the highest market share, which are all based on SRAM technology, and need to be connected to an external memory to save the program when in use. When powered on, the FPGA reads the data in the external memory into the on-chip RAM, and after completing the configuration, it enters the working state. When power off, the FPGA returns to a white chip, and the internal logic disappears. In this way, the FPGA can not only be used repeatedly, but also does not require a special programmer, but only a general EPROM and PROM programmer. So Actel, QuickLogic and other companies also provide FPGAs with anti-fuse technology, which can only be downloaded once. They have the advantages of anti-radiation, high & low temperature resistance, low power consumption and fast speed. They are widely used in military and aerospace fields. FPGA cannot be erased and written repeatedly, which is troublesome and expensive in the early stage of development. Lattice is the inventor of ISP technology, which has certain characteristics in small-scale PLD applications. Early Xilinx products generally did not involve military and aerospace markets, but now a number of products such as Q Pro-R have entered such fields.In the industrial field, FPGA chips are widely used in the industrial field, and are widely used in video processing, image processing, CNC machine tools and other fields to realize signal control and operation acceleration functions. With the development of intelligence and automation technology, the industrial field is gradually shifting from human resources as the core element to intelligent unmanned factories with automation as the core element.Smart electric vehicles will be the mainstream development direction of the automotive industry in the future. At present, the application of FPGA in automotive cameras and sensors is relatively mature. In the artificial intelligence system of automatic/intelligent driving vehicles, the applicability of FPGA will be the most suitable for processing sophisticated ADAS and autonomous driving. Figure 7. FPGA for Auto In the field of automotive electronic system interface and control, FPGA chips are used to control and drive electric vehicle motor control systems, connect various in-vehicle equipment such as driving systems, instrument panels, radar, ultrasonic sensors, etc. control. In the field of video bridging and fusion, FPGA chips can be used to realize functions such as signal bridging of multiple image sensors, 3D surround view video fusion, reversing auxiliary video, and assisted driving video.In the field of communication, the number of 5G base stations has increased, and the FPGA usage of a single base station has increased, driving the increase in FPGA demand. According to estimates, the FPGA consumption of a 5G single base station is expected to increase from 1-3 blocks in the 4G period to 4-5 blocks in the 5G period. Figure 8. RFSoC FPGA Board Target 5G eFPGA technology is superior to traditional FPGA solutions in terms of performance, cost, power consumption, profitability, etc., and can provide flexible solutions for different application scenarios and different market segments. The economic trend of increasing design complexity and falling equipment costs has stimulated the market demand for eFPGA technology.   Ⅳ Development Trend of FPGA First of all, with the commercialization of the new generation of communication technology, the demand for products such as communication base stations, servers, and intelligent terminals will further expand, thereby driving the increase in the market demand for FPGA chips. At the same time, smart cities, smart factories, and consumer electronics pay more attention to the functionality of various smart IoT devices, which will drive the wide application of FPGA chips in smart IoT devices. With the development of the Internet of Vehicles technology, the scale of the use of FPGA chips in the automotive industry will increase day by day to build a more complete Internet of Vehicles and realize smarter autonomous driving functions. Therefore, with the rapid penetration of 5G, the vigorous development of AI and the increasing trend of automotive intelligence, it is expected that the demand for FPGAs in the three fields of communication, AI and automotive electronics will continue to increase in the future, which will also promote The FPGA industry continues to grow.   Ⅴ FAQ 1. What is FPGA and why it is used?The acronym FPGA stands for Field Programmable Gate Array. It is an integrated circuit that can be programmed by a user for a specific use after it has been manufactured. ... These blocks create a physical array of logic gates that can be customized to perform specific computing tasks. 2. Is FPGA faster than GPU?The difference between GPU and FPGA performance is not a static factor, but it does depend on the size of the data set. A study by Sanaullah and Herbordt [7] revealed that FPGA can compute small samples of 3D FFT tens of times faster than GPU. The difference is less clear when the data set gets bigger. 3. Is FPGA faster than CPU?A FPGA can hit the data cell faster and more often than a CPU can do it meaning the FPGA causes more results to occur during an attack. It all goes faster when an FPGA is used. And as a side benefit, no trace of all this is left on the CPU because it's never touched when an FPGA is used. 4. Are FPGAs efficient?Efficiency and Power: FPGAs are well-known for their power efficiency. A research project done by Microsoft on an image classification project showed that Arria 10 FPGA performs almost 10 times better in power consumption. 5. Is FPGA programming hard?FPGA vendors have touted their wares as ideal replacements for DSPs, CPUs, and GPUs – even for all of them in a single device – but they are notoriously difficult for software engineers to program as they are not anything like a conventional processor. 6. What can you do with FPGAs?Uses for FPGAs cover a wide range of areas—from equipment for video and imaging, to circuitry for computer, auto, aerospace, and military applications, in addition to electronics for specialized processing and more. 7. What is the difference between processor and FPGA?Microprocessor vs FPGA: A microprocessor is a simplified CPU or Central Processing Unit. ... An FPGA doesn't have any hardwired logic blocks because that would defeat the field programmable aspect of it. An FPGA is laid out like a net with each junction containing a switch that the user can make or break. 8. What language is used to program FPGA?VerilogTraditionally, FPGAs are programmed using pro-level hardware-description languages such as Verilog or VHDL. 9. How many times can you program an FPGA?There is effectively no limit to the number of times a device can be reconfigured; the configuration is stored in SRAM, which has no write limit. most Fpgas can be passively loaded from a processor, one word at a time. That processor can get the FPGA image from anywhere. 10. What are the advantages of FPGA?FPGA advantagesLong-term availabilityUpdating and adaptation at the customerVery short time-to-marketFast and efficient systemsAcceleration of softwareReal-time applicationsMassively parallel data processing 11. How do you make an FPGA?FPGA design checklistMake sure you have plenty of time to spare.Find a decent computer.If you can afford it, add a big display.Decide which operating system to use.Consider using a virtual machine (VM).Select an FPGA vendor.Pick out a suitable development board.Select an embedded processor to use. 12. What is FPGA for beginners?FPGA stands for Field Programmable Gate Array. As you may already know, FPGA essentially is a huge array of gates that can be programmed and reconfigured any time anywhere. Huge array of gates is an oversimplified description of FPGA. FPGA is indeed much more complex than a simple array of gates. 13. What is FPGA in Verilog?FPGAs are nothing, but reconfigurable logic blocks and interconnects can be programmed by Hardware Description Language like Verilog/ VHDL to perform a specific functionality. 14. Do we need to program the FPGA once powered off?If you have a SRAM-based FPGA, like the Spartan 3, then you have to program it each time it is powered up. The reason for this is that the SRAM which stores the configuration is volatile and loses the programmed configuration after power is switched off. 15. How is FPGA different from microcontroller?One of the main differences between a microcontroller and an FPGA is that an FPGA doesn't have a fixed hardware structure, while a microcontroller does. While FPGAs include fixed logic cells, these, along with the interconnects, can be programmed in parallel by using HDL coding language.

CatalogIntroduction Ⅰ Flysky Transmitter and Receiver1.1 4-channel Flysky Transmitters1.2 Essential Features of Flysky Receivers  Ⅱ RF Transmitter vs RC Transmitter2.1 What is RF Transmitter?2.2 What is RC Transmitter?2.3 Differences between RC and RF Transmitters  Ⅲ Key Points of RC/RF Transmitter and Receiver3.1  How to Bind RC Transmitter and Receiver ?3.2 How to Pair Your RC Transmitter and Receiver?3.3 How to Extend the Range of a RF Transmitter and Receiver?3.4 How do RF receivers Synchronize on a Transmitter's Signal?3.5 8 Tips for Easier RC Transmitter Control  Ⅳ FAQIntroduction A flysky transmitter collects and decodes information, and a receiver displays it in audible and/or visual form for consumers to view or listen to. The radio is the most well-known and oldest invention to use this system.Ⅰ Flysky Transmitter and Receivervideo shows how to bind with Flysky Receivers  - iA6, X6B, iA6B, Fli14+, GT3B, FLIT10 - FS-i6 and FS-i6X Radio 1.1  4-channel Flysky TransmittersFlySky sells 4-channel transmitters, but while a 4-channel TX is adequate for simple RC cars, boats, and planes, a mini quad requires 6 or more channels.Channels 1–4 are used to control the actual movement of the craft, while the remaining channels are delegated to the radio's switches and pots (potentiometers) and are regarded as "Auxiliary Channels," denoted by the letters AUX 1, AUX 2, and so on.Aux channels on a quadcopter can be used to activate different flight modes and control various peripherals such as a lost model buzzer and LED light. With new technology being released regularly, the number of functions and peripherals that we can control from the transmitter grows by the day.Realistically, if you only have 6 channels available, you will quickly feel limited, so we have only included TXs with 6 or more channels.1.2 Essential Features of Flysky Receivers  TelemetryI believe that telemetry was an afterthought for FlySky, and given that most newer FCs come with an integrated OSD, who can blame them if they are focusing sales on the FPV market? In reality, telemetry is one of the 'bells and whistles' I mentioned earlier, and it is by no means required for the beginner.FailsafeAs you can see, there are some sacrifices that must be made when using a FlySky RX to ensure that you have an operational failsafe. Failsafe is probably not as important as the telemetry in an indoor model or a micro you use in the garden, but it is far more important. For some reason, the best RX FlySky makes for larger models (the FS-X6B) only offers a failsafe on the older PWM protocol, which is in my opinion absurd.As you can see, failsafe is not always available over specific protocols, depending on the RX. Failsafe is far more important than telemetry because it reduces the possibility of unexpected behavior in the event that the RX signal is lost. Take the time to ensure you're using a failsafe protocol!Ⅱ RF Transmitter vs RC Transmitter2.1 What is RF Transmitter?An RF transmitter is a type of electronic device that uses an antenna to convert analog signals to digital signals. They have an embedded storage memory that aids in the storage of information, which is then converted by an RF receiver as required by the user. RF transmitters operate at various frequencies, allowing signals to be transmitted at the desired frequency range. They are primarily used in a variety of applications ranging from electronic toys to telecommunication devices and satellites.2.2 What is RC Transmitter  ?2.4GHz radio control transmitters (TX) for all RC applications. Stick and wheel transmitters are available from Etronix and are suitable for use in automobiles, aircraft, boats, and drones.2.3 Differences between RC and RF Transmitters  RC stands for “radio control”.RF stands for “radio frequency”.A radio frequency is used by radio control transmitters to transmit a signal. Radio frequency is used by TV and radio stations to transmit a different type of signal.Radio frequency is a very broad term that refers to electromagnetic signals with frequencies ranging from 100kHz to 100GHz. Radio control is a subset of radio frequency usage.Ⅲ Key Points of RC/ RF Transmitter and Receiver3.1 How to Pair your RC Transmitter and Receiver?Most modern RCs use 2.4 GHz TX and RX that must be paired in the same way that a Bluetooth device is paired with a computer or phone. The RX  has a couple of pins that are connected by a special binding plug. A bind button or switch is located somewhere in the TX. By shorting two pins, you can activate the RX while the TX is in bind mode. When the bind is complete, the LED will usually flash quickly and then glow steadily, and the RX will respond to stick motions. The bind plug is then removed from the RX, and the RX will begin listening to your receiver once it detects its unique transmitting protocol.When the TX is turned on, it will first listen for an available channel before transmitting on it, while the RX will scan channels until it hears the transmitter to which it has been bound. There is usually a brief "boot up" period before the link is established, lasting about a second. Although it is still legal to use old equipment such as crystals and frequency control boards, they are largely obsolete.3.2 How do You Increase the Range of an RF Transmitter and Receiver?Several ways are available.Increase the power of the transmitter. This is not always legal.Utilize a single sideband (SSB) AM modulation scheme to direct more power to a transmitter signal (legally).For the transmitter and receiver, use a lower frequency carrier. Longer wavelengths frequently have a greater range than higher frequencies.Use a higher modulation percentage to produce a signal that is easier to decode at the receiver.Tune the transmitter antenna if it is not already well-tuned. Use a better ground plane if possible, or place the transmitter closer to a natural ground plane.Raise the transmitter antenna's height above the ground.Utilize a directional antenna with gain pointing in the direction(s) of the intended receivers.Extend the range beyond-line-of-sight by utilizing ionosphere reflections. This is not always reliable because it is affected by natural ionosphere changes.Utilize a repeater at a point halfway between the transmitter and the receiver. This could be anywhere, including a mobile device, a mountain top, a tall building, or even a satellite.Raise the height of the receiver antenna above the ground.Install a better ground plane or place the transmitter near a natural ground plane, such as a lake.Use a directional receiver antenna that is pointed in the direction of the desired transmitter and is tuned to the correct frequency.Use a receiver with a higher gain, lower noise, and greater sensitivity.Use a digital data encoding strategy with data correction capability, a more robust, slower transmission data encoding scheme with multiple, redundant transmissions, and a receiver capable of decoding and error-correcting that data.Utilize multi-band transmission to compensate for poor radio propagation conditions.3.3 How do RF Receivers Synchronize on a Transmitter's Signal?Synchronization is usually accomplished in stages.Step 1 Align the frequencies of the transmitter and receiver. In the days before synthesized oscillators, improving frequency stability required some serious engineering. Typically, the last resort was some form of automatic frequency control, or AFC, which used a pilot carrier that was transmitted alongside the actual information carrier.Step 2Advances in frequency control enabled the AFC to be removed from many applications. Today, most frequency error correction is done in the demodulator circuit.Step 3Demodulate the information bits carried by the modulated wave. This results in demodulated data, which can then be analyzed for patterns or embedded clock information.This data is used to adjust the phase of a locally generated clock signal so that it corresponds to the data elements received.In some implementations, clock recovery information is embedded in the data itself, whereas in others, special patterns or bit sequences are dedicated to clock recovery.Step 4 Properly align the data streams with the demodulator so that the actual information can be retrieved, a process known as "data" or "frame" synchronism. 3.4 How to Bind RC Transmitter and Receiver ?Most RC transmitter manufacturers provide pre-programmed transmitters for their respective receivers. However, if you need to replace the components, you can do so by following these steps. The tools you'll need include an accessible receiver, a charged battery in the model, and charged batteries in the transmitter.Syncro System (Kyosho)The Syncro system is commonly used in a variety of models such as the Fazer Rage, Fazer Tl drift car, Outlaw Rampage, and many others. The binding tick requires you to hold down the bind button while powering up the model.You'll notice the transmitter LED flashing quickly. Then, before releasing the bind button, turn on the transmitter. The receiver LED will then re-light to ensure that the process is complete.TQi Top Qualifier (Traxxas)Another ultra-ergonomic high-performance system was found on the Merc G500. Roveris Traxas' radio is TEXAland Roveris Traxas. To rebind this radio, press and hold the red setbutton on the top of the RC transmitter while turning it on; the led should gradually flash red.You can seat the release button at the same time. Press and hold the link button on the receiver end while turning on the speed controller. Finally, when it is powered up, you can let go of it. You can take it for granted if you notice the receiver and transmitter lights turn green.Tactic TTX300 Binding (Axial)This transmitter and receiver system is found on the RTR Axial SCX10il. To bind this, turn on both the receiver and the transmitter, as well as the RC car.Then, on the receiver's box, press and hold the link button. You must press and hold it until it turns red, just before it turns off. Finally, its receiver LED will flash once before returning to a steady state.3.5 8 Tips for Easier RC Transmitter Control  Although most transmitters provide adequate grip and comfort, there are a few tricks you can use to improve them. Improving grip can improve how well you drive your vehicle, which is a definite advantage if you like to compete. Here are a few RC Transmitter Control  tricks that you can use to gain an advantage over your competition.STEERING WHEEL MODS Tennis Racket Grip Tape Wrapping the transmitter's grip with tennis racket grip tape will help wick away any moisture created by your hand, reducing the the'slip' factor. As a result, the transmitter is easier to hold without fear of dropping it. You won't have to grip as tightly, which will reduce hand fatigue. Furthermore, because the tape is thin, it will not change the size of the transmitter grip. This is a plus if you like the size and feel of the stock transmitter in your hand. You can also choose from a variety of colors for the grip tape, which will help you identify your radio.Steering wheel changeAftermarket steering wheels are available from companies such as Duratrax, Hot Racing, and Dynamite if your steering wheel is worn or you want to try something different. Not all foam is the same, and you may find one that suits you better.Improved GripThere are also steering wheel grips that can be added to improve control and reduce fatigue. Pro Grips from Xtreme Racing are designed to fit over your existing steering wheel. The scallop shape gives your fingers a place to rest, and the grips don't require glue to stay in place.Drop Down Kit The manufacturer of your transmitter may offer a drop down steering wheel kit. These kits lower the steering wheel so that your hands are in line with each other, which may be a more comfortable position for you.Trigger Tricks 1.I've discovered that some triggers are so smooth that your finger can slip off of them. Fix this with a wrap of racket grip tape.2. A length of fuel tubing is an easy fix for triggers that don't provide a tight feel for your finger, which can impair braking responsiveness. To help close the opening for your finger, slide the fuel tubing over the forward section of the trigger. This trick will also increase the friction on your finger.Self-adhesive FoamIf you want to make the grip larger and/or contour it to your hand, some self-adhesive foam can help. It may take some trial and error to get it exactly how you want it, but it is worth the time to get it right. Once in place, cover it with grip tape to make it more secure.Optional GripsIf you read the instruction manual for your transmitter, you will most likely discover that the manufacturer provides optional transmitter grips. They are typically available in larger or smaller sizes than stock and are simple to install on the transmitter.Ⅳ FAQ1. Are Flysky transmitters any good?A cost effective and overall great product. The transmitter feels a little cheap, but its performance works just as advertised. ... Overall, I say this product is a good buy. It's simple and relatively cheap (compared to other models), but performs great!2. Can you use any transmitter with any RC car?Yes, RC transmitters and receivers are interchangeable, so that you can use transmitters and receivers of different brands, and they will work perfectly.3. Is FlySky and Frsky the same?In my view, the components of the frsky stations have a much higher quality than the flysky ones. ... But if yours is going to fly more continuously, you are looking for reliability because you already have a more serious and more expensive model, I recommend that you acquire a Horus or taranis type frsky station.4. What is the range of a 2.4 Ghz RC transmitter?about 300 feetThe 2.4GHz version of the HumRC Series is about 300 feet (90m) for remote control applications.5. Are FlySky and Spektrum compatible?But Spektrum transmitters cannot talk to FlySky receivers - ever. ... But Spektrum transmitters cannot talk to FlySky receivers - ever. Spektrum transmitters require receivers that use the DSMX or DSM2 algorithms. You need the Spektrum AR610 receiver (or equivalent) in order to bind with your Spektrum DX6 transmitter.6. Is FlySky compatible with DSMX?You would need to put a Spektrum compatible RF module in the FlySky transmitter. ... If the flysky uses the spektrum dsm2/dsmx then yes.7. Does FlySky have telemetry?Spare receiver for the FlySky i6 Transmitter. ... Voltage telemetry built in when paired with the i6 transmitter. This receiver features dual antennas for optimal performance and no fear of interference.8. Is Flysky GT5 waterproof?The gyro function is surprisingly valuable in both and you can get a bunch on amazon real cheap. however, I recommend using some conformal coating or corrosion -x as they are not waterproof. I use the FS-GT5 with the FS-BS6 receivers and they work great in my cars and in my boat.9. Can you bind any transmitter to any receiver?You can use a transmitter with any receiver. BUT you have to have a way of changing the antenna when you transmit. There are antenna relays for this purpose that will automatically make the change for you. The power of the transmitter would quickly destroy your receiver.