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Nanotechnology, a technology on a microscopic scale that is indiscernible to the human eye, is gradually having a huge impact on human electronic information, manufacturing, energy, environment and medical care. Mobile phones, computers, cosmetics, sunglasses, tennis rackets, bicycles ...... many of your daily necessities are or have been used in nanotechnology.Want to learn more about what is nanotechnology? Click on the video below or scroll down to see more content!What is Nanotechnology? CatalogI. What is nanotechnology?II. Nano products in consumer marketIII. Small, energy-efficient, bendable screen   digital productsIV. Energy saving and environmental   protectionV. Cancer diagnosis and treatmentVI. Nanotechnology risk alertFAQI. What is nanotechnology?Nanoscience is the science that studies the interactions, composition, properties and fabrication methods of matter at the nanoscale (between atomic and molecular to submicron scales). At such small scales, the physical, chemical and biological properties of materials are vastly different compared to those of macroscale objects.A research report prepared by Springer Nature, the National Center for Nanoscience and the Documentation and Information Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences shows that nanotechnology promotes multidisciplinary cross-fertilization and breeds numerous opportunities for scientific and technological breakthroughs and original innovations. At the same time, nanotechnology will have a huge impact on people's production and life with the birth of high technology.II. Nano products in consumer marketDue to their ideal mechanical, chemical, electrical, thermal or optical properties, new nanomaterials are used in daily necessities and industrial manufacturing.It is estimated that there are more than 1,600 nanotechnology-based consumer products on the market, including lightweight and rigid tennis rackets, bicycles, luggage, auto parts and rechargeable batteries.Ordinary hair dryers or hair straighteners may use nanomaterials to reduce weight or extend service life. Sunscreens have used sunscreen ingredients such as nano-titanium dioxide or zinc oxide that are invisible on the skin surface. Nano-engineered fibers are used to make anti-wrinkle and anti-staining clothes, which are not only light in weight but also prevent the growth of bacteria.In the manufacturing industry, nanostructured materials are used in surface coatings or lubricants for machine parts to reduce wear and extend the service life of the machine. Alloys with nanostructures are ideal high-performance materials for the manufacture of aircraft and aerospace parts due to their high strength, durability and light weight. They are used in the manufacture of airframes, filter materials and other parts to bring stronger corrosion resistance, earthquake resistance and fire resistance.Nano particles of metals, oxides, carbon and other compounds are also good catalysts, and have important industrial applications in petroleum refining, biofuels and other fields.III. Small, energy-efficient, bendable screen digital productsNanotechnology, a key driver for the information technology and digital electronics industry, has further enhanced the performance of many electronic products, such as computers, cell phones and TVs, the study says.Due to the advancement of nanotechnology, integrated chips and transistors have become smaller and smaller, but the calculation speed has increased day by day. In 2016, the world's first 1-nanometer transistor was born. The transistor is made of carbon nanotubes and molybdenum disulfide instead of silicon, demonstrating the potential to further reduce the size of electronic devices.Scientists’ in-depth understanding of the physical properties of nanomaterials has promoted the development of quantum devices, achieved high-speed data transmission with lower energy consumption, and improved the performance and security of information systems.Zhu Xing, chief scientist of the National Nanoscience Center, said that one application area of quantum dots or inorganic semiconductor nanocrystals is the display screen industry. Based on nanotechnology, the display screens of TVs, computers and mobile devices can achieve ultra-high definition, energy saving, and even bendable, and produce more realistic images. People use carbon nanotubes or silver nanowires when designing new transparent conductive materials, which opens the door to the development of various electronic devices that use flexible screens.IV. Energy saving and environmental protectionAccording to experts, nanotechnology can promote the development of alternative energy sources, improve energy efficiency, and provide new solutions for environmental governance.Based on nanotechnology or new catalysts, oil and natural gas extraction and fuel combustion have become more efficient, which reduces pollution and energy consumption of power plants, vehicles and other heavy equipment.Scientists use nano-engineering to improve the performance of solar photovoltaic power generation equipment and reduce costs. Nanomaterials can also be used for waste heat conversion, such as converting car exhaust into useful energy.For another example, scientists have developed nano-particles that can convert carbon dioxide into clean fuel methane, and nano-photocatalysts that can increase the production capacity of hydrogen, which provide the prospect of developing new renewable energy sources.Nano-structured electrode materials can be used to increase the capacity and performance of rechargeable batteries, reduce battery weight, and thereby improve the efficiency and endurance of electric vehicles.In addition, nanotechnology can also be used for water treatment and pollutant cleaning. For example, nanomaterials such as molybdenum disulfide film can promote the desalination of salt water with more efficient filterability, while porous nanomaterials can absorb heavy metals and slicks in water like a sponge to absorb toxic substances such as heavy metals and slick oil.In addition, nanofibers can absorb tiny particles in the air, so they can be used as a filter to purify the air.The application of nanotechnology in environmental governance also includes the detection of pollutants in air, water and soil. Due to their unique chemical and physical properties, nanoparticles are more sensitive to chemical or biological reagents, so they can be used in sensors to identify toxic substances, which is simpler and faster than traditional methods, and can even remove pollutants while detecting.V. Cancer diagnosis and treatmentAccording to experts, nanotechnology has an increasingly significant impact on the medical and health industries, and has been steadily developed in medical applications such as drug delivery, biomaterials, imaging, diagnosis, and active implants.According to the research report, perhaps the most eye-catching application of nanotechnology in biomedicine is the emergence of the so-called nanopore gene sequencing technology. Its working principle is to use an electric field to drive each single DNA strand through a nano-sized hole in the film, that is, a nanopore.When a single strand of DNA passes through the nanopore, the current change generated on the hole is recorded, thereby identifying the gene coding sequence on the single strand. This technology is expected to significantly reduce the cost of gene sequencing and increase the speed of sequencing.Another promising medical application of nanotechnology is drug delivery. Nanotechnology allows drugs to break through chemical, anatomical, and physiological barriers to reach diseased tissues, increasing the amount of drug accumulation at focal sites and reducing damage to healthy tissue.For example, carefully designed nanomedicines can penetrate cancerous tissues via vascular leakage points and accumulate at the target location, thereby increasing the precision of targeted cancer therapy.In medical imaging, nanoparticles, due to their tiny size and special chemical properties, can form aggregates in specific tissues and tumor locations, thus enabling easier and more accurate diagnosis and improving treatment outcomes.Nanotechnology can also be applied to biological tissue engineering. Nanomaterials such as graphene, nanotubes, and molybdenum disulfide can be used to make scaffolds to help repair or reshape damaged tissues. Nanostructured scaffolds can mimic the unique micro-environment of tissues, promote cell attachment, reproduction and growth, and induce normal cell functions and tissue growth.VI. Nanotechnology risk alertNew technology is like a double-edged sword, bringing benefits and risks, and nanotechnology is no exception. The research report pointed out that while praising its rapid development, people should also be careful of its environmental, health and social impacts.The biggest concern of people at present is the threat of nanoparticles to health, because nanoparticles can easily enter the human body through the lungs or skin. For example, it has been found that metal pollutants in carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles of diesel fuel have adverse effects on health. Workers exposed to nano-pollutants in production operations have a higher health risk.In addition, industrial emissions generated during the manufacturing process of nanomaterials will also pose a risk of environmental pollution. Nanoparticles have high activity and small size, which may adversely affect the ecosystem and pose a threat to the survival of animals and plants.Although nanomedicine has a bright future, it is still unclear whether it is involved in metabolism in the human body and how it is metabolized, so it may also bring unexpected consequences. The long-term effect of nanomedicine is still unclear.FAQ 1. What is nanotechnology used for?Nanotechnology also lowers costs, produces stronger and lighter wind turbines, improves fuel efficiency and, thanks to the thermal insulation of some nanocomponents, can save energy. The properties of some nanomaterials make them ideal for improving early diagnosis and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases or cancer. 2. What exactly is nanotechnology?Nanotechnology is science and engineering at the scale of atoms and molecules. It is the manipulation and use of materials and devices so tiny that nothing can be built any smaller. 3. How is nanotechnology used in everyday life?The average person already encounters nanotechnology in a range of everyday consumer products – nanoparticles of silver are used to deliver antimicrobial properties in hand washes, bandages, and socks, and zinc or titanium nanoparticles are the active UV-protective elements in modern sunscreens. 4. Is Nanotechnology good or bad?Nanoparticles do hold out much environmental promise. The same reactivity that makes them harmful in the body also means they can break down dangerous chemicals in toxic waste – or anywhere, for that matter. And their use in electronics drastically reduces power demand, which could cut greenhouse gases. 5. Is nanotechnology safe for humans?Out of three human studies, only one showed a passage of inhaled nanoparticles into the bloodstream. Materials which by themselves are not very harmful could be toxic if they are inhaled in the form of nanoparticles. The effects of inhaled nanoparticles in the body may include lung inflammation and heart problems. 6. What diseases can nanotechnology cure?Nanomedicine — the application of nanomaterials and devices for addressing medical problems — has demonstrated great potential for enabling improved diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of many serious illnesses, including cancer, cardiovascular and neurological disorders, HIV/AIDS, and diabetes, as well as many types ...7. What is nanotechnology and why is it important?Why is nanotechnology important? Nanotechnology improves existing industrial processes, materials and applications by scaling them down to the nanoscale in order to ultimately fully exploit the unique quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale. 8. What is so special about nanotechnology?Nanotechnology is not simply working at ever smaller dimensions; rather, working at the nanoscale enables scientists to utilize the unique physical, chemical, mechanical, and optical properties of materials that naturally occur at that scale.9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of nanotechnology?Nanotechnology offers the potential for new and faster kinds of computers, more efficient power sources and life-saving medical treatments. Potential disadvantages include economic disruption and possible threats to security, privacy, health and the environment.10. Why Is nanotechnology dangerous?Nanoparticles are likely to be dangerous for three main reasons: Nanoparticles may damage the lungs. ... Nanoparticles can get into the body through the skin, lungs and digestive system. This may help create 'free radicals' which can cause cell damage and damage to the DNA.

Ⅰ IntroductionWhen connected to a voltage source, capacitors are basic passive devices that can store an electrical charge on their plates. The capacitor, like a miniature rechargeable battery, has the ability or "capacity" to store energy in the form of an electrical charge, producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates. Capacitors come in a variety of sizes and shapes, ranging from tiny capacitor beads used in resonance circuits to enormous power factor correction capacitors, but they always store charge. this video shows how capacitors work CatalogⅠ IntroductionⅡ Types of Capacitor2.1 Dielectric Capacitor2.2 Variable Capacitor Symbol2.3 Film Capacitor Type2.4 Axial Lead Type2.5 Ceramic Capacitors2.6 Electrolytic Capacitors2.7 Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors2.8 Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors2.9 Frequently Asked Questions About Different Types Of CapacitorⅢ The Capacitance of a Capacitor3.1 SI Unit of Capacitance3.2 μF vs. nF vs. pF3.3 Frequently Asked Questions about the Capacitance of a CapacitorⅣ Capacitor Conversion: µF-nF-pF 4.1 Capacitor Conversion Chart4.2 Popular Capacitor Conversions4.3 Frequently Asked Questions about Capacitor ConversionⅤ Capacitor Color Code5.1 Capacitor Colour Code Tables5.2 Color Codes of Different Capacitors5.3 Frequently Asked Questions about Capacitor Color CodeⅥ Capacitor Code6.1 Types of Capacitor Code6.2 Frequently Asked Questions about Capacitor CodeⅦ Capacitor Code Calculator7.1 Capacitor Safety Discharge Calculator Tool7.2 Series and Parallel Capacitance Calculator Ⅱ Types of CapacitorFrom very small delicate trimming capacitors used in oscillator or radio circuits to enormous power metal-can type capacitors used in high voltage power correction and smoothing circuits, capacitors are available. The dielectric used between the plates is commonly used to make comparisons between different types of capacitors. There are variable varieties of capacitors, just like resistors, that allow us to adjust their capacitance value for use in radio or "frequency tuning" circuits. Metallic foil is interwoven with thin sheets of either paraffin-impregnated paper or Mylar as the dielectric material in commercial capacitors. Because the metal foil plates are rolled up into a cylinder to produce a compact box with the insulating dielectric material sandwiched in between, some capacitors resemble tubes. Ceramic materials are frequently used to make small capacitors, which are subsequently sealed with epoxy resin. Capacitors play a crucial role in electronic circuits in any case, therefore here are a few of the most "common" capacitor types available. 2.1 Dielectric CapacitorWhen a constant variation in capacitance is necessary for tuning transmitters, receivers, and transistor radios, dielectric capacitors are normally of the variable variety. Multi-plate air-spaced variable dielectric capacitors have a set of fixed plates (the stator vanes) and a set of movable plates (the rotor vanes) that move in between the fixed plates. The overall capacitance value is determined by the position of the moving plates concerning the fixed plates. When the two sets of plates have entirely meshed together, the capacitance is usually at its highest. With breakdown voltages in the thousands of volts, high voltage tuning capacitors have relatively large spacings or air gaps between the plates. 2.2 Variable Capacitor SymbolTrimmers are pre-set type variable capacitors that are available in addition to continuously variable varieties. These are typically small devices that may be modified or "pre-set" to a specific capacitance value with a small screwdriver, and are available in very low capacitances of 500pF or less, and are non-polarized. variable capacitor symbol 2.4 Axial Lead TypeLong thin strips of thin metal foil with the dielectric material sandwiched between them are twisted into a tight roll and then sealed in paper or metal tubes for film and foil capacitors. To lessen the possibility of tears or punctures in the film, these film types require a significantly thicker dielectric film and are thus better suited to lower capacitance values and bigger case sizes. axial-lead-type Metalized foil capacitors have the conductive film metalized sprayed directly onto each side of the dielectric, giving the capacitor self-healing capabilities and allowing thinner dielectric films to be used. For a given capacitance, this enables for larger capacitance values and smaller case sizes. Film and foil capacitors are typically employed in situations that require more power and precision. 2.5 Ceramic CapacitorsCeramic capacitors, also known as Disc capacitors, are created by coating two sides of tiny porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and stacking them together to form a capacitor. A single ceramic disc of roughly 3-6mm is utilized for very low capacitance values. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available in tiny physical sizes, allowing for relatively high capacitances. ceramic capacitor Because they are non-polarized and exhibit huge non-linear changes in capacitance with temperature, they are employed as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors. Ceramic capacitors range in size from a few picofarads to one or two microfarads, but their voltage ratings are often modest. A three-digit code is usually inscribed on the body of ceramic capacitors to identify their capacitance value in pico-farads. The first two digits usually represent the capacitor's value, while the third digit represents the number of zeros to be added. A ceramic disc capacitor marked 103, for example, would indicate 10 and 3 zeros in pico-farads, which is equal to 10,000 pF or 10nF. The numerals 104, for example, represent 10 and 4 zeros in pico-farads, which is comparable to 100,000 pF or 100nF, and so on. The digits 154 on the ceramic capacitor image above represent 15 and 4 zeros in pico-farads, which is comparable to 150,000 pF, 150nF, or 0.15F. To signify their tolerance value, letter codes are occasionally employed, such as J = 5%, K = 10%, M = 20%, and so on. 2.6 Electrolytic CapacitorsWhen very large capacitance values are required, electrolytic capacitors are typically utilized. Instead of employing a very thin metallic film layer for one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of jelly or paste is employed (usually the cathode). The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide that is produced electrochemically in the manufacturing process and has a thickness of fewer than ten microns. Because the insulating layer is so thin, capacitors with a big capacitance value can be made in a small physical size because the distance between the plates, d, is so short. electrolytic capacitor The majority of electrolytic capacitors are polarized, which means that the DC voltage applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity, i.e. positive to the positive terminal and negative to the negative terminal, or the insulating oxide layer will be broken down and permanent damage may result. The polarity of all polarized electrolytic capacitors is indicated with a negative sign to signify the negative terminal, which must be followed. Due to their huge capacitance and small size, electrolytic capacitors are commonly employed in DC power supply circuits to help reduce ripple voltage or for coupling and decoupling applications. Electrolytic capacitors have a low voltage rating, which means that they can't be utilized on AC supply because of their polarization. Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors are the two most common types of electrolytes. 2.7 Aluminium Electrolytic CapacitorsThe plain foil type and the etched foil type are the two varieties of Aluminum Electrolytic capacitors. These capacitors have extremely high capacitance values for their size due to the thickness of the aluminum oxide coating and the high breakdown voltage.aluminium electrolytic capacitor A DC current is used to anodize the capacitor's foil plates. The polarity of the plate material is established during the anodizing process, which defines which side of the plate is positive and which side is negative. The aluminum oxide on the anode and cathode foils has been chemically etched to increase surface area and permittivity, which makes the etched foil type different from the plain foil type. This results in a smaller capacitor than a normal foil type of comparable value, but it has the disadvantage of not being able to handle strong DC currents. Their tolerance range is also fairly high, reaching up to 20%. Capacitance values for aluminum electrolytic capacitors typically range from 1uF to 47,000uF. Plain foil electrolytes are better suited as smoothing capacitors in power supply, while etched foil electrolytes are best employed in the coupling, DC blocking, and by-pass circuits. However, because aluminum electrolytes are “polarized” devices, inverting the applied voltage on the leads will damage the insulating layer within the capacitor, as well as the capacitor itself. The capacitor's electrolyte, on the other hand, aids in the healing of a damaged plate if the damage is minor. The electrolyte has the power to re-anodize the foil plate since it can self-heal a damaged plate. The electrolyte can remove the oxide layer from the foil if the anodizing process is reversed, as it would if the capacitor was connected with reverse polarity. Because the electrolyte can conduct electricity, if the aluminum oxide layer is removed or destroyed, current can flow from one plate to the other, causing the capacitor to fail, "so be alert." 2.8 Tantalum Electrolytic CapacitorsTantalum Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum Beads come in both wet (foil) and dry (solid) electrolytic varieties, with dry tantalum being the most prevalent. Solid tantalum capacitors have a second terminal of manganese dioxide and are physically smaller than analogous aluminum capacitors. Tantalum oxide's dielectric characteristics are superior to those of aluminum oxide, resulting in reduced leakage currents and greater capacitance stability, making it ideal for blocking, by-passing, decoupling, filtering, and timing applications. Tantalum capacitors, although being polarized, can withstand being linked to a reverse voltage considerably better than aluminum capacitors, but they are rated at much lower operating voltages. Solid tantalum capacitors are commonly employed in circuits with low AC voltages compared to DC voltages. Some tantalum capacitors, on the other hand, comprise two capacitors in one, connected negative-to-negative to make a “non-polarized” capacitor for use in low voltage AC circuits. The positive lead of a tantalum bead capacitor is usually identifiable by a polarity mark on the capacitor body, which has an oval geometrical shape. Capacitance values typically vary from 47nF to 470F. 2.9 Frequently Asked Questions About Different Types Of Capacitor1. Which type of capacitor is best?Class 1 ceramic capacitors offer the highest stability and lowest losses. They have high tolerance and accuracy and are more stable with changes in voltage and temperature. Class 1 capacitors are suitable for use as oscillators, filters, and demanding audio applications. 2. Does the type of capacitor matter?Yes, the type of capacitor can matter. Different types of capacitor have different properties. Some of the properties that vary between capacitor types: polarized vs unpolarized. 3. Are all capacitors the same?Not all capacitors are created equal. Each capacitor is built to have a specific amount of capacitance. The capacitance of a capacitor tells you how much charge it can store, more capacitance means more capacity to store charge. 4. Which type of capacitor is known as Polarised capacitor?Electrolytic Capacitors. The Electrolytic Capacitors are the capacitors which indicate by the name that some electrolyte is used in it. They are polarized capacitors which have anode + and cathode − with particular polarities. A metal on which insulating oxide layer forms by anodizing is called as an Anode. 5.Which capacitors are not polarized?Ceramic, mica and some electrolytic capacitors are non-polarized. You'll also sometimes hear people call them "bipolar" capacitors. A polarized ("polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor that have implicit polarity -- it can only be connected one way in a circuit. Ⅲ The Capacitance of a CapacitorThe Farad (abbreviated to F) is the unit of capacitance and is named after the British physicist Michael Faraday. Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure of a capacitor's ability to store an electrical charge onto its two plates. When a charge of One Coulomb is stored on the plates by a voltage of One volt, a capacitor has a capacitance of One Farad. It's worth noting that capacitance, or C, is always positive and has no negative units. However, because the Farad is a relatively big unit of measurement on its own, sub-multiples such as micro-farads, nano-farads, and pico-farads are commonly used. 3.1 SI Unit of CapacitanceCapacitors are a common type of electrical component, and their values are usually stated in microfarads, F (or uF if a micro character is not available), nanofarads, nF, or picofarads, pF. Microfarad (μF)  1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 FNanofarad (nF)  1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 FPicofarad (pF) 1pF=1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F 3.2 μF vs. nF vs. pFAlthough most current circuits and component descriptions use the nomenclature F, nF, and pF to specify capacitor values, older circuit designs, circuit descriptions, and even the components themselves may employ a variety of non-standard acronyms that aren't always evident. The following are the main changes for the various capacitance sub-multiples: Micro-Farad, µF: Larger value capacitors, such as electrolytic capacitors, tantalum capacitors, and even some paper capacitors measured in micro-Farads, may have been labeled with uF, mfd, MFD, MF, or UF. All of these terms refer to the value in µF. Electrolytic and tantalum capacitors are commonly connected with this nomenclature. Nano-Farad, nF: Because nF or nano-Farads nomenclature was not frequently used prior to terminology standardization, this submultiple lacked a variety of abbreviations. The term nanofarad has gained in popularity in recent years, while it is still not widely used in some countries, with values given in huge numbers of picofarads, such as 1000pF for 1 nF, or fractions of a microfarad, such as 0.001 µF for a nanofarad. Ceramic capacitors, metalized film capacitors, including surface mount multilayer ceramic capacitors, and even some modern silver mica capacitors all use this terminology. Pico-Farad, pF: The value in picoFarads, pF, was again indicated using a variety of acronyms.  MicroromicroFarads, mmfd, MMFD, uff, µµFwere among the terms used. All of these numbers are in pF. Picofarad capacitor values are commonly employed in radio frequency, RF circuits, and equipment. As a result, this nomenclature is most commonly associated with ceramic capacitors, however, it is also applied to silver mica capacitors and some film capacitors. The conversion of values from one submultiple to the next has been aided by the standardization of terminology. It has resulted in a significant reduction in the potential for misunderstanding. Converting from µF to nF and pF is simpler. This is important when a capacitor value is listed in one way on a circuit diagram and another way on a list of electronic components distributors. Because different electrical component manufacturers label components differently, the capacitance conversion table is highly useful. For example, some manufacturers label their equivalent capacitors as a fraction of a microfarad, while others label them as a fraction of a nanofarad, and so on. Electrical component wholesalers and retailers will prefer to adopt the manufacturer's nomenclature. Similarly, circuit diagrams may use different symbols to represent components to maintain commonality, etc. As a result, being able to convert between picofarads, nanofarads, and microfarads, as well as vice versa, is beneficial. When the bill of materials or parts list for the circuit has values expressed in microfarads, µF, and picofarads, pF, this can aid identify components labeled in nanofarad values. It is generally useful to be able to utilize a capacitance conversion calculator like the one above, but it is also important to be familiar with the conversions and popular equivalents, such as 1000pF = nanofarad and 100nF = 0.1µF. These conversions become second nature while working with electrical components and designing electronic circuits, but the capacitance conversion tables and calculators can still be quite useful. Capacitors, as well as other electronic components like inductors, benefit from these conversions. 3.3 Frequently Asked Questions about the Capacitance of a Capacitor1. What is capacitance in simple terms?Capacitance is the ability of a system of electrical conductors and insulators to store electric charge when a potential difference exists between the conductors. Capacitance is expressed as a ratio of the electrical charge stored to the voltage across the conductors. 2.What is C in capacitance?The capacitance C is the ratio of the amount of charge q on either conductor to the potential difference V between the conductors, or simply C = q/V. 3.What is difference between capacitor and capacitance?Capacitance is nothing but the ability of a capacitor to store the energy in form of electric charge. In other words, the capacitance is the storing ability of a capacitor. It is measured in farads. 4.What is the formula of capacitor?The governing equation for capacitor design is: C = εA/d, In this equation, C is capacitance; ε is permittivity, a term for how well dielectric material stores an electric field; A is the parallel plate area; and d is the distance between the two conductive plates. 5.What four factors affect capacitance?The capacitance of a capacitor is affected by the area of the plates, the distance between the plates, and the ability of the dielectric to support electrostatic forces. Ⅳ Capacitor Conversion: µF-nF-pF  The use of the nanofarad (nF) is less common in some fields, with values stated in fractions of a µF and huge multiples of picofarads (pF). When components marked in nanofarad are available, it may be necessary to convert to nanofards, nF in these circumstances. When a circuit diagram or electronic components list mentions the value in picofarads, for example, and listings for an electronic component distributor or electronic components store state it in another way, it can be confusing. Capacitor values can be in the 109 range or even higher, thanks to the introduction of supercapacitors. The common prefixes pico (10-12), nano (10-9), and micro (10-6) are often used to avoid misunderstanding with high numbers of zeros connected to the values of different capacitors. When converting between them, a capacitor conversion chart or capacitor conversion table for the various capacitor values can be useful. Another requirement for capacitance conversion is that the actual capacitance value is reported in picofarads in some capacitor marking systems, therefore the value must be converted to the more common nanofarads or microfarads. 4.1 Capacitor Conversion ChartMicrofarads ( µF)Nanofarads(nF)Picofarads(pF)0.0000010.00110.000010.01100.00010.11000.001110000.0110100000.11001000001100010000001010000100000001001000001000000004.2 Popular Capacitor ConversionsCapacitor values can be written in a few different ways. A ceramic capacitor, for example, is frequently assigned a value of 100nF. It is often interesting to realize that this is 0.1µF when utilized in circuits with electrolytic capacitors. These handy conversions can aid in the design, construction, and maintenance of circuits. When building circuits or employing capacitors in any fashion, keeping these capacitor conversions in mind when values migrate from picofarads to nanofarads and then nanofarads to microfarads is typically beneficial. A more comprehensive table of conversion factors to convert between the different values, nF to pF, µF to nF etc is given below.Table of Conversion Factors to Convert between µF,nF and pF convertmultiply by:pF     to     nF1 x 10-3pF     to     µF1 x 10-6nF     to     pF1 x 103nF     to     µF1 x 10-3µF     to     pF1 x 106µF     to     nF1 x 103 4.3 Frequently Asked Questions about Capacitor Conversion1. Can I replace a capacitor with a higher uF?An electric motor start capacitors can be replaced with a micro-farad or UF equal to or up to 20% higher UF than the original capacitor serving the motor. 2.What happens if I use a higher uF capacitor?The higher the number of micro-farads, the more energy the capacitor can hold. In theory, if a device has a high uF, it will last longer in a power outage.3.What happens if you use the wrong size capacitor?If the wrong run capacitor is installed, the motor will not have an even magnetic field. This will cause the rotor to hesitate at those spots that are uneven. This hesitation will cause the motor to become noisy, increase energy consumption, cause performance to drop, and cause the motor to overheat. 4.Can I replace a capacitor with a lower capacitance?Yes, it's possible given the necessary skills and tools. Yes, it's safe. The only rating that matters for safety is the rated voltage: if you put a higher voltage than the maximum you might see your cap explode. 5.Can I use a run capacitor in place of a start capacitor?The capacitance and voltage ratings would have to match the original start capacitor specification. A start capacitor can never be used as a run capacitor, because it cannot not handle current continuously. Ⅴ Capacitor Color Code5.1 Capacitor Colour Code TablesWhen the capacitance value is a decimal value, problems with the marking of the "Decimal Point" arise since it is easily overlooked, leading to a misunderstanding of the real capacitance value. Instead of the decimal point, letters like p (pico) or n (nano) are used to indicate the position and weight of the number. A capacitor might be labeled as n47 = 0.47nF, 4n7 = 4.7nF, or 47n = 47nF, for example. Also, capacitors are occasionally labeled with the capital letter K to indicate a value of one thousand pico-Farads, thus a capacitor marked 100K would be 100 x 1000pF or 100nF. An International color-coding scheme was devised many years ago as a simple manner of identifying capacitor values and tolerances to reduce the confusion regarding letters, numbers, and decimal points. The Capacitor Colour Code system, which consists of colored bands (in spectral order) and whose meanings are given below, is a system that consists of colored bands (in spectral order). Band ColourDigit ADigit BMultiplier DTolerance (T) > 10pfTolerance (T) < 10pfTemperature Coefficient (TC)Black00x1± 20%± 2.0pF Brown11x10± 1%± 0.1pF-33×10-6Red22x100± 2%± 0.25pF-75×10-6Orange33x1,000± 3% -150×10-6Yellow44x10,000± 4% -220×10-6Green55x100,000± 5%± 0.5pF-330×10-6Blue66x1,000,000  -470×10-6Violet77   -750×10-6Grey88x0.01+80%,-20%  White99x0.1± 10%± 1.0pF Gold  x0.1± 5%  Silver  x0.01± 10%  Capacitor Colour Code Table Band ColourVoltage Rating (V) Type JType KType LType MType NBlack4100 1010Brown62001001.6 Red10300250435Orange15400 40 Yellow205004006.36Green25600 1615Blue35700630 20Violet50800   Grey 900 2525White31000 2.53Gold 2000   Silver     Capacitor Voltage Colour Code Table Capacitor Voltage ReferenceType J–  Dipped Tantalum Capacitors.Type K–  Mica Capacitors.Type L–  Polyester/Polystyrene Capacitors.Type M–  Electrolytic 4 Band Capacitors.Type N–  Electrolytic 3 Band Capacitors. 5.2 Color Codes of Different Capacitors 1.Metalised Polyester Capacitor  2. Disc & Ceramic Capacitor  For many years, unpolarized polyester and mica molded capacitors were coded using the Capacitor Colour Code system. Although this color coding method is no longer in use, many “old” capacitors can still be found. Small capacitors, such as film or disk kinds, now comply with the BS1852 Standard and its new replacement, BS EN 60062, which replaces the colors with a letter or number coding system. 5.3 Frequently Asked Questions about Capacitor Color Code1. What do capacitor colors mean?All the color bands painted on the capacitors body are used to indicate the capacitance value and capacitance tolerance. The color codes used to represent the capacitance values and capacitance tolerance is similar to that used to represent resistance values and resistance tolerance. 2.How do you read a capacitor code?If you have a capacitor that has nothing other than a three-digit number printed on it, the third digit represents the number of zeros to add to the end of the first two digits. The resulting number is the capacitance in pF. For example, 101 represents 100 pF: the digits 10 followed by one additional zero. 3.Which type of capacitor is available in color code?A color code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of course there are many still around. The colors should be read like the resistor code, the top three color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating). 4.Are capacitors color coded?The capacitors use a capacitor color code similar to the resistors color code (3, 4 or 5 bands). The first two colors indicate significant digits of the value of the capacity (in pF), the next colour is the corresponding power of 10, the other two colors are optional and indicate tolerance and maximum voltage. Ⅵ Capacitor Code6.1 Types of Capacitor CodeFor example, a capacitor labeled 474J should be read as 47 times the value listed in Table 1 corresponding to the third number, in this case, 10000: 47 * 10000 = 470000 pF = 470 nF = 0.47µF, with the J indicating a 5% tolerance. If a temperature coefficient is present, the second letter will be it. You'll rapidly learn to tell whether a capacitor's value is expressed in pF, nF, or µF based on its size and kind. The capacitance of a capacitor designated 2A474J is encoded as mentioned above; the two initial signs are the voltage rating, which can be decoded from table 2 below. According to the EIA standard, 2A is a 100V DC rating. Some capacitors are only marked 0.1 or 0.01, mostly in these cases the values are given in µF. Some small capacitance capacitors contain an R between the numbers, such as 3R9, which indicates that the value is less than 10pF and has nothing to do with resistance. 3R9 has a 3.9pF value. Table 1 – Capacitor codes with letters and tolerances3rd numberMultiply withLetterTolerance01D0.5pF110F1%2100G2%31,000H3%410,000J5%5100,000K10%61,000,000M20%7Not usedM20%80.01P+100%/-0%90.1Z+80%/-20% Table 2A – Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) – DC voltage code table0E = 2.5 VDC2A = 100 VDC3A = 1 kVDC0G = 4.0 VDC2Q = 110 VDC3L = 1.2 kVDC0L = 5.5 VDC2B = 125 VDC3B = 1.25 kVDC0J = 6.3 VDC2C = 160 VDC3N = 1.5 kVDC1A = 10 VDC2Z = 180 VDC3C = 1.6 kVDC1C = 16 VDC2D = 200 VDC3D = 2 kVDC1D = 20 VDC2P = 220 VDC3E = 2.5 kVDC1E = 25 VDC2E = 250 VDC3F = 3 kVDC1V = 35 VDC2F = 315 VDC3G = 4 kVDC1G = 40 VDC2V = 350 VDC3H = 5 kVDC1H = 50 VDC2G = 400 VDC3I = 6 kVDC1J = 63 VDC2W = 450 VDC3J = 6.3 kVDC1M = 70 VDC2J = 630 VDC3U = 7.5 kVDC1U = 75 VDC2I = 650 VDC3K = 8 kVDC1K = 80 VDC2K = 800 VDC  Table 2B – Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) – AC voltage code table2Q = 125 VAC2T = 250 VAC2S = 275 VAC2X = 280 VAC2F = 300 VACI0 = 305 VACL0 = 350 VAC2Y = 400 VACP0 = 440 VACQ0 = 450 VACV0 = 630 VAC  Table 3 – Capacitor code tablepico-farad (pF)nano-farad (nF)micro-farad (µF) Capacitor Code1 pF capacitor code0.001 nF capacitor code0.000001 µF capacitor code101.5 pF capacitor code0.0015 nF capacitor code0.0000015 µF capacitor code1R52.2 pF capacitor code0.0022 nF capacitor code0.0000022 µF capacitor code2R23.3 pF capacitor code0.0033 nF capacitor code0.0000033 µF capacitor code3R33.4 pF capacitor code0.0039 nF capacitor code0.0000039 µF capacitor code3R93.5 pF capacitor code0.0047 nF capacitor code0.0000047 µF capacitor code4R75.6 pF capacitor code0.0056 nF capacitor code0.0000056 µF capacitor code5R66.8 pF capacitor code0.0068 nF capacitor code0.0000068 µF capacitor code6R88.2 pF capacitor code0.0082 nF capacitor code0.0000082 µF capacitor code8R210 pF capacitor code0.01 nF capacitor code0.00001 µF capacitor code10015 pF capacitor code0.015 nF capacitor code0.000015 µF capacitor code15022 pF capacitor code0.022 nF capacitor code0.000022 µF capacitor code22033 pF capacitor code0.033 nF capacitor code0.000033 µF capacitor code33047 pF capacitor code0.047 nF capacitor code0.000047µF capacitor code47056 pF capacitor code0.056 nF capacitor code0.000056 µF capacitor code56068 pF capacitor code0.068 nF capacitor code0.000068 µF capacitor code68082 pF capacitor code0.082 nF capacitor code0.000082 µF capacitor code820100 pF capacitor code0.1 nF capacitor code0.0001 µF capacitor code101120 pF capacitor code0.12 nF capacitor code0.00012 µF capacitor code121130 pF capacitor code0.13 nF capacitor code0.00013µF capacitor code131150 pF capacitor code0.15 nF capacitor code0.00015 µF capacitor code151180 pF capacitor code0.18 nF capacitor code0.00018 µF capacitor code181220 pF capacitor code0.22 nF capacitor code0.00022 µF capacitor code221330 pF capacitor code0.33 nF capacitor code0.00033 µF capacitor code331470 pF capacitor code0.47 nF capacitor code0.00047 µF capacitor code471560 pF capacitor code0.56 nF capacitor code0.00056 µF capacitor code561680 pF capacitor code0.68 nF capacitor code0.00068 µF capacitor code681750 pF capacitor code0.75 nF capacitor code0.00075 µF capacitor code751820 pF capacitor code0.82 nF capacitor code0.00082 µF capacitor code8211000 pF capacitor code1 / 1n / 1 nF capacitor code0.001 µF capacitor code1021500 pF capacitor code1.5 / 1n5 / 1.5 nF capacitor code0.0015 µF capacitor code1522000 pF capacitor code2 / 2n / 2 nF capacitor code0.002 µF capacitor code2022200 pF capacitor code2.2 / 2n2 / 2.2 nF capacitor code0.0022 µF capacitor code2223300 pF capacitor code3.3 / 3n3 / 3.3 nF capacitor code0.0033 µF capacitor code3324700 pF capacitor code4.7 / 4n7 / 4.7 nF capacitor code0.0047 µF capacitor code4725000 pF capacitor code5 / 5n / 5 nF capacitor code0.005 µF capacitor code5025600 pF capacitor code5.6 / 5n6 / 5.6 nF capacitor code0.0056 µF capacitor code5626800 pF capacitor code6.8 / 6n8 / 6.8 nF capacitor code0.0068 µF capacitor code68210000 pF capacitor code10 / 10n / 10 nF capacitor code0.01 µF capacitor code10315000 pF capacitor code15 / 15n / 15 nF capacitor code0.015 µF capacitor code15322000 pF capacitor code22 / 22n / 22 nF capacitor code0.022 µF capacitor code22333000 pF capacitor code33 / 33n / 33 nF capacitor code0.033 µF capacitor code33347000 pF capacitor code47 / 47n / 47 nF capacitor code0.047 µF capacitor code47368000 pF capacitor code68 / 68n / 68 nF capacitor code0.068 µF capacitor code683100000 pF capacitor code100 / 100n / 100 nF capacitor code0.1 µF capacitor code104150000 pF capacitor code150 / 150n / 150 nF capacitor code0.15 µF capacitor code154200000 pF capacitor code200 / 200n / 200 nF capacitor code0.20 µF capacitor code204220000 pF capacitor code220 / 220n / 220 nF capacitor code0.22 µF capacitor code224330000 pF capacitor code330 / 330n / 330nF capacitor code0.33 µF capacitor code334470000 pF capacitor code470 / 470n / 470nF capacitor code0.47 µF capacitor code474680000 pF capacitor code680 nF capacitor code0.68 µF capacitor code6841000000 pF capacitor code1000 nF capacitor code1.0 µF capacitor code1051500000 pF capacitor code1500 nF capacitor code1.5 µF capacitor code1552000000 pF capacitor code2000 nF capacitor code2.0 µF capacitor code2052200000 pF capacitor code2200 nF capacitor code2.2 µF capacitor code2253300000 pF capacitor code3300 nF capacitor code3.3 µF capacitor code3354700000 pF capacitor code4700 nF capacitor code4.7 µF capacitor code4756800000 pF capacitor code6800 nF capacitor code6.8 µF capacitor code68510000000 pF capacitor code10000 nF capacitor code10 µF capacitor code10615000000 pF capacitor code15000 nF capacitor code15 µF capacitor code15620000000 pF capacitor code20000 nF capacitor code20 µF capacitor code20622000000 pF capacitor code22000 nF capacitor code22 µF capacitor code22633000000 pF capacitor code33000 nF capacitor code33 µF capacitor code33647000000 pF capacitor code47000 nF capacitor code47 µF capacitor code47668000000 pF capacitor code68000 nF capacitor code68 µF capacitor code686100000000 pF capacitor code100000 nF capacitor code100 µF capacitor code107330000000 pF capacitor code330000 nF capacitor code330 µF capacitor code337470000000 pF capacitor code470000 nF capacitor code470 µF capacitor code477680000000 pF capacitor code680000 nF capacitor code680 µF capacitor code6871000000000 pF capacitor code1000000 nF capacitor code1000 µF capacitor code1086.2 Frequently Asked Questions about Capacitor Code1. What is the code of a capacitor?Generally, the actual values of Capacitance, Voltage or Tolerance are marked onto the body of the capacitors in the form of alphanumeric characters. For example, a capacitor can be labeled as, n47 = 0.47nF, 4n7 = 4.7nF or 47n = 47nF and so on. 2.What does the numbers on a capacitor mean?The first two numbers represent the value in picofarads, while the third number is the number of zeroes to be added to the first two. For example, a 4.7 μF capacitor with a voltage rating of 25 volts would bear the marking E476. 3.What is the value of a capacitor?Capacitor values can be of over 109 range, and even more as super capacitors are now being used. To prevent confusion with large numbers of zeros attached to the values of the different capacitors the common prefixes pico (10 -12 ), nano (10 -9) and micro (10 -6) are widely used. 4.How can you determine the value of a capacitor?The value of capacitors can be determined by several ways depending up on the type of capacitor like electrolytic, disc, film capacitors, etc. These methods include value or number printed on the body of the capacitor or color coding of the capacitor. 5.How can I determine the capacitance of an unknown capacitor?To determine an unknown capacitance using an oscilloscope , a dc power source such as a 9-V battery, a known resistance, a switch and the capacitor are all connected in series. An oscilloscope probe tip and ground lead are connected across the capacitor. Additionally, you need a short wire jumper to shunt across the capacitor. Ⅶ Capacitor Code Calculator7.1 Capacitor Safety Discharge Calculator ToolThis Capacitor Safety Discharge Calculator helps to determine the discharge rate of a capacitor at known capacitance and charge through a fixed-value resistor. Enter the initial voltage, time, resistance, and capacitance into the calculator. The calculator will display the total voltage discharged and remaining. Many factors need to be considered when choosing a discharge resistor. Safety standards require the voltage across a capacitor to reach a safe voltage before a person is able to touch it. In the USA, standards such as UL, OSHA, NTA, ETL, MET, etc. will have the requirements available for the needs of your product.Capacitor Safety Discharge Calculator Tool 7.2 Series and Parallel Capacitance CalculatorThis tool calculates the overall capacitance value for multiple capacitors connected either in series or in parallel.Series and Parallel Capacitance Calculator 

IntroductionIn electronics, a pinout (sometimes written "pin-out") is a cross-reference between the contacts, or pins, of an electrical connector or electronic component. It describes the functions of transmitted signals and the circuit input/output (I/O) requirements. The number of pins is divided into 8-pin, 14-pin, 16-pin, etc. Every pin must be properly matched to a connector that has the same function. Pinout types include Universal Serial Bus (USB) pinout, PS/2 pinout, ATX power supply pinout, VGA pinout, and Digital Visual Interface (DVI).How to Read Pinouts?CatalogIntroductionⅠ Pinout Arrangement DescriptionⅡ Arduino Pinout and Raspberry Pi Pinout2.1 Arduino Nano Pinout and Arduino Uno Pinout2.2 Arduino Pinout Series2.3 Raspberry Pi Pinout and Diagram2.4 Difference between an Arduino and a Raspberry PiⅢ Example: AT89S52 PinoutsⅠ Pinout Arrangement DescriptionA pinout generally has descriptions in a diagram or table, which specifically indicates whether it is the back-side or front-side view, or if it is the mating face of the connector, or it stands for? Generally speaking, the more pins, the larger the size of the IC chip, the stronger the circuit function, and of course, the higher the price.What these pins stand for? Look at the following Common PIC Pin Descriptions:Pin NumberSymbolDescription1AUDIOAudio Signal Output2FM OUTFM Detection Output3IF AGCIF Signal Input4RF AGCRF AGC Voltage Output5IF INIF Signal Input6IF GNDIF Circuit Ground7IF VccIF Circuit Power Supply8FM FILTERFM Detector Filter Terminal9AFT OUTAFT Control Power Output10SDAI2C Bus Data Terminal11SCLI2C Bus Clock Terminal12ABLAutomatic Brightness Control13R INRed Character Input14G INGreen Character Input15B INBlue Character Input16BLACK INCharacter Blanking signal Input17RGB VccDecoding Circuit Power Supply18R OUTRed Primary Color Signal Output19G OUTGreen Primary Color Signal Output20B OUTBlue Primary Color Signal Output21IDWhite Balance Adjustment Signal Input22VER OUTField Sawtooth Wave Output23V RAMP ALCField Sawtooth Wave Formation24H/BUS VccLine Start Power25AFC FILTERLine AC Low-pass Filtering26HOR OUTLine Excitation Pulse Output27FBP INLine and Reverse Pulse Input28REFReference Current Formation29CLK OUT4MHz Clock Signal Output Pin NumberSymbolDescription301H DL VccBuilt-in Baseband Delay Line +5V Power Supply311H DL Vcc OUTBaseband Delay Line Boost Circuit Output Terminal321H DL GNDBaseband Delay Line Ground33SECAM INComponent Signal Input34C APC FILTERChroma Subcarrier Phasedetector (APC1) Low-pass Filter35SECAM INTERFACE4.43MHz CW Signal Output or SECAM Achromatic Signal Input36X TAL4.43MHz Crystal Terminal37SEL VIDEO OUTVideo Output38V/C/DEF GNDGround39EXT V IN/Y INAV Video or Y Signal Input Terminal40V/C/DEF VccVideo/Chroma/Scan Part Power41INT V IN/C INAV Video or C Signal Input Terminal42BLACK STECHFilter End of Black Level Extension Circuit43VIDEO OUTVideo Detector Output44VCO FILTERIF Lock Detection Filter45VCOExternal VCO Resonant Network46PIF APCIF APC Filter47EXT AUDIO INAV Audio Signal Input48SIF OUTAudio Accompanying Sound IF Output49SIF INAudio Accompanying Sound IF Input50SND APCAccompanying Sound Discrimination Filter Pin NumberSymbolDescription1BASSBass Control Output2MUTEMute (High Level) Control Output350/6050Hz/60Hz Identification Output4SECAMSECAM Recognition5VOLVolume Control6COMB.FDigital Filter on/off Control7POWERPower On/Standby Control8TUNEPWM Tuning Voltage Output9GNDGround10XTAL132kHz Crystal Connection Terminal11XTAL232kHz Crystal Connection Terminal12VDDPower Supply13KEY-IN1Key Scan Signal Input 114KEY-IN2Key Scan Signal Input 215AFT-INAFT Control Voltage Input16RESETReset Terminal17FILTERCharacter Oscillation Low Pass Filter18NCEmpty Pin19V-SYNCCharacter Vertical Positioning Pulse Input20H-SYNCCharacter Horizontal Positioning Pulse Input21OSD-BLKCharacter Blanking Pulse Output22SDAI2C Bus Data Terminal23SCLI2C Bus Clock End24SAFTYOverload Detection Terminal25CSProduction Debugging Chipselect Signal Input Terminal26REM INRemote Control Signal Input27SIFAudio IF Switching Control28TV/AV1AV/TV Switch29TV/AV2AV/TV Switch303.58/4.433.58/4.43 Control31UHFUHF Band Control32VHVHF-H Band Control33VLVHF-L Band ControlⅡ Arduino Pinout and Raspberry Pi Pinout2.1 Arduino Nano Pinout and Arduino Uno PinoutThe Arduino Nano is a small, complete, and breadboard-friendly board. It is based on the ATmega328 8-bit microcontroller by Atmel. It has a total of 36 pins. Out of these 8 are analog input pins and 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs). Nano has a 16 MHz SMD crystal resonator, a mini USB-B port, an ICSP header, 3 RESET pins and, a RESET button. The Arduino digital pins can read/output only two states: when there is a voltage signal and when there is no signal.Figure 1. ATMEGA328 PinoutArduino UNO is based on the ATMEGA328 by Atmel. The Arduino UNO pinout consists of 14 digital pins, 6 analog inputs, a power jack, USB connection and ICSP header. The function of Analog pins is to read the value of the analog/digital input used in the connection.Figure 2. Arduino UNO Pinout2.2 Arduino Pinout SeriesDigital PinsPower:  Mini USB  VinICSP:  MISO (Master In Slave Out)  Vcc (Supply Voltage)  SCK (Clock from Master to Slave)  MOSI (Master Out Slave In)  RST (Reset (Active Low)  GND (Supply Ground)Serial Communication PinsPWM (Pulse Width Modulation) PinsExternal InterruptsSPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) pinsBlinking LED Analog PinsRESETI2C ProtocolAREF (Analog Reference) PinsPower2.3 Raspberry Pi Pinout and DiagramThe Raspberry Pi is a tiny and affordable computer that you can use to learn programming through fun, practical projects, which is the go-to microcomputer for all ages and abilities. You can plugs it into a computer monitor or TV, and uses a standard keyboard and mouse. Over the years the header has expanded from 26 pins to 40 pins while maintaining the original pinout. As you can see, the Pi not only gives you access to the bi-directional I/O pins, but also Serial (UART), I2C, SPI, and even some PWM ("analog output").Figure 3. Raspberry Pi GPIO PinoutRaspberry Pi is as small as the size of a credit card, and works as if a normal computer at a relatively low price. It is possible to work as a low-cost server to handle light internal or web traffic. What’s more, grouping a set of Raspberry Pi to work as a server is more cost-effective than a normal server. Although Raspberry Pi board has so many advantages, it also has the following disadvantages:1) Not able to run Windows Operating system2) Impractical as a Desktop Computer3) Graphics Processor Missing4) Missing eMMC Internal Storage2.4 Difference between an Arduino and a Raspberry PiThe main difference between them is: Arduino is microcontroller board, while Raspberry Pi is a microprocessor based mini computer (SBC). The Microcontroller on the Arduino board contains the CPU, RAM and ROM. ... Raspberry Pi needs an Operating System to run. Arduino doesn't need any operating system.If you're coming to the Raspberry Pi as an Arduino user, you're probably used to referencing pins with a single, unique number. Programming the Pi's hardware works much the same, each pin has its own number...and then some.Ⅲ Example: AT89S52 PinoutsThe pin functions of AT89S52 are diverse. For example, the intermediate frequency signal can be demodulated from the pin to the internal FM circuit in an unbalanced manner. At the same time, it is also the control pin for AVTV conversion and PAL, NTSC, SECAM chroma system conversion in the block, and its input impedance is about 3.4K.Figure 4. AT89S52 Pinouts1) For Recognition OutputThe pin outputs image recognition signal in OC gate mode. When the video TV signal has been received, this pin presents high impedance to the outside, and a high level signal can be obtained through an external pull-up resistor; when no signal is received, this pin presents a low impedance and outputs a low level.2) As APC1 Filter TerminalThe chip generates a 38MHz switching signal in an oscillating manner to complete the demodulation of the image IF signal. Whether the generated switching signal is accurate depends on the automatic phase control circuit (APC) control. Among them, the filtering of the APC1 error signal is completed on this pin.3) As APC2 Filter TerminalThe filter terminal of the second-stage APC circuit4) An external pin for the quartz crystal oscillatorThe external quartz crystal and internal circuit will oscillate in the form of series resonance. The oscillation frequency is a quarter of the carrier frequency of the image intermediate frequency signal. The frequency of the quartz crystal required is different under different signal systems.5) For AFT Signal OutputThe image IF signal compare with the internal frequency, and then the pin outputs AFT error signal.6) Full TV Signal OutputThe signal in the image is demodulated, and finally the video signal and the accompany audio intermediate frequency signal are output from the pin, and the output signal level is 2V.7) Radio Frequency AGC Delay AdjustmentBy adjusting the external potentiometer, the AGC delay amount can be adjusted.8) For the Input of Internal and External Video SignalsThe signal input needs to be separated from the DC. The coupling capacitor capacity is 1uF. When the internal input level is the peak, the max value is 2V. And when the external input is the peak and the peak is 1V. The input impedance is about 50kΩ. Inside the integrated circuit, the blanking level is fixed at 4.5V.9) The Output of Contrast Control Voltage can also be used to control ACL.10) The pin is the standard level of the built-in filter and the switch of S-VHS. It needs a 1Uf capacitor to be grounded to set the standard level. When it is in the S-VHS mode, the pin voltage must be led by an external circuit is set below 2V. When it is in the normal AV state, the voltage level should be set above 2V.11) Input Pin for S-VHS Chroma Signal and DC ControlWhen inputting chroma signal, a 0.01Uf capacitor should be used to cut off the DC input. At PAL format, the chroma signal level should be 300mV peak-to-peak, and should be 286mV peak-to-peak under the NTSC system.12) As a Delayed Video Signal OutputIt can also achieve ABL control. The output video signal level is 2V peak-to-peak, and a current of 0.5mA or more is necessary.13) The Output of the Decolorization ControlAfter the internal decolorization circuit is activated, a low-level signal will be output from the pin.14) Address Input for Analog Bus Control15) Data Input of Analog Bus Control16) The Output of the Internal Field Scanning PulseThe external resistance value can set the sensitivity of the internal field synchronization separation. If you don't need the internal field pulse, you can also input other field pulse signals from the pin, and the internal field output is automatically cut off at this time. The pin can also be an automatic trigger mode release switch and a row AFC strobe release switch.17) To connect the oscillating quartz crystalThe crystal frequency should be 500Hz.18) Separate power supply pins for line oscillation and line pre-excitation circuits. A higher voltage provides a DC voltage to the pin through a resistor, which is stabilized to 7V by the internal voltage regulator circuit for use by the above circuits. The selection calculation of resistance is: R1=(+B1－7.0V)/13mA.19) The output of line pre-excitation pulse is output in push-pull mode.20) Line and Reverse Pulse InputThe line and reverse pulse signal is output from this pin after forming a sand castle pulse internally. As a unified working sequence of some circuits, this pin is also the output of the integrated circuit pulse in the SECAM system.21) Character Background Blanking Pulse InputThe standard control voltage is 1V, when the input voltage is higher than 1V, the image display stops, and the character is displayed at the current position. When the pin voltage is lower than 1V, the image is displayed at the current position.22) The input of the three-color signal of the on-screen character display (OSD). When using the analog character display mode, the DC input needs to be cut off. When using the digital character display mode, the high level needs to be set to a certain value.23) Negative brightness signal output, and at the same time the input of the de-trap signal.24) Color difference signal output, respectively output the R-Y, G-Y, B-Y of the TV image or the R, G, B three-color screen character display dot matrix after character display conversion.25) After the input of the ALC amplifier (CCD delay adjustment) is delayed and calculated by the integrated one-line delay line, the two color difference signals return to the LA7687 from these two lead pins.26) Output the Color Difference Signal to the Integrated Delay Line.In the PAL system, the two incompletely demodulated color difference signals are output from two pins to the delay line for further processing. When in the SECAM system, the color difference signal does not come from LA7687. Therefore, the two pins present a high impedance state under this system, and the output dc voltage is 3.6V.27) The subcarrier recovery circuit needs to be connected to 4.43MHz and 3.58/MHz quartz crystals.28) For the Color Demodulation Circuit APC FilterThe filter composed of the external resistance container can set the synchronization range of the subcarrier oscillation.29) The AGC Filter Pin of the First Stage Mid AmplifierThe AGC detection circuit separates the synchronization signal by detecting the peak value of the video signal, and filters it into the AGC voltage at the pin. The second stage AGC filter is hidden inside the integrated circuit.30) Image IF Signal InputThrough the surface acoustic filter to form a specific image IF signal, in a balanced way from  two lead pins amplify the collector circuit. Inside the integrated circuit, there are a total of three amplifiers, and the total amplification gain is above 60dB.31) The output of the radio frequency AGC is output in an open-collector mode.32) Audio Signal OutputThe integrated circuit completes the demodulation of the FM signal, and the audio signal is output from the pin, and there should be a de-emphasis circuit composed of resistive components on the outside.33) Audio Filter PinIt is used to eliminate the DC feedback of the preamplifier, in addition, a 1uF capacitor is required to be connected externally. In addition, when this pin is set to high level, the image IF gets into the SECAM mode. Frequently Asked Questions about Electronic Pinout1. What does pinout mean?In electronics, a pinout (sometimes written "pin-out") is a cross-reference between the contacts, or pins, of an electrical connector or electronic component, and their functions. "Pinout" now supersedes the term "basing diagram" that was the standard terminology used by the manufacturers of vacuum tubes and the RMA. 2. What is pin configuration?Devices support both analog input and digital I/O line modes on several configurable pins. The following table provides typical parameters for the pin configuration commands (D0 - D9, P0 - P2). 3. What is a pinout cable?Pinout or pin-out is a term used in electronics to describe how an electrical cable is wired, or the function of each wire (pin) in a connector. An electrical connector typically consists of several electrical contacts or pins that can be used to carry electrical power or signals. 4. What are the pins on Arduino Uno?Arduino/Genuino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P (datasheet). It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header and a reset button. 5. How many digital and analog pins are in Arduino Uno?Microcontrollers

Catalog Introduction Design Flow of Chip Design Specification Development Design Details of the Chip Draw a Blueprint for the Plane About Wafer What Is a Wafer How to Make Single Crystal Wafer Metallurgical Purification Pulling the Crystal Design Flow of Chip Manufacture What Is an IC Chip Metal Sputtering Coating Photoresistance Etching Technology Photoresist Removal Nano-Process What Is the Nano-Process How Tiny Is the Nanometer Purpose of Reducing the Process Physical Limitations of Downsizing About Encapsulation Two Common Packages DIP Package BGA Package Two Ways to Reduce Size SoC SiP Introduction A chip is a silicon chip that contains an integrated circuit, so the chip is also called an integrated circuit. It may be only 2.5 centimeters in square size, but it contains tens of millions of transistors. Simpler processors, on the other hand, may have thousands of transistors engraved on chips which are a few millimeters in size. Chip is the most important part of electronic equipment, which undertakes the function of operation and storage. Design Flow of Chip The birth of a chip can be divided into two parts: design and manufacture. First, let's take a look at the complex and tedious chip design process. Fig 1. The process of making a chip is like building a house with Lego. First, the wafer is used as the foundation and the necessary IC chips can be produced after layers are stacked on top of each other. However, there is no use in having no amount of manufacturing capacity without a design drawing. Therefore, the role of an architect is very important. But who is the architect in IC's design? The next step is to introduce the IC design. In the IC production process, IC is mostly planned and designed by professional IC design companies, such as MediaTek, Qualcomm, Intel and other well-known large factories, all of which design their own IC chips to provide different specifications and efficiency chips for downstream manufacturers to choose from. Because IC is designed by the factories themselves, so IC design depends very much on the technology of engineers and the quality of engineers affects the value of an enterprise. But what are the steps engineers take to design an IC chip? The design process can be simply divided into the following steps. Design Specification Development In IC design, the most important step is specification development. This step is like deciding how many rooms, bathrooms, what building codes to comply with, and designing after all the features have been identified so that no additional time is spent on subsequent modifications. The IC design needs to go through similar steps to ensure that the chip is designed without any errors. The first step in specification development is to determine the purpose and effectiveness of IC and to set the general direction. The next step is to see what protocols to comply with, such as the wireless card chip needs to comply with IEEE 802.11 and other specifications. Otherwise, the chip will not be compatible with the products on the market, so that it will not be able to connect to other devices. Finally, the implementation method of this IC is established, different functions are allocated into different units, and the method of connecting different units is established, so that the specification can be completed. Design Details of the Chip After designing the specifications, it is followed by the details of the design chip. This step is like making a preliminary note of the planning of the building and depicting the overall outline for subsequent drawing. In IC chip, the hardware description language (HDL) is used to describe the circuit. The commonly used HDLs are Verilog, VHDL, and so on, which can easily express the function of a IC by code. This is followed by checking the correctness of the program's functionality and continuously modifying it until it meets the desired functionality. Fig 2. Verilog Example of 32 Bits Adder Draw a Blueprint for the Plane With a complete plan, the next step is to draw a blueprint for the plane. In IC design, the step of logic synthesis is to put the unmistakable HDL code into the electronic design automation tool (EDA tool), to let the computer convert HDL code into logic circuit, resulting in the following circuit diagram. After that, it is repeatedly determined whether the logic gate design conforms to the specification and is modified until the function is correct. Fig 3. The Result of the Synthesis of the Control Unit Finally, the synthesized code is put into another set of EDA tool for circuit layout and winding (Place And Route). After continuous detection, the following circuit diagram will be formed. You can see blue, red, green, yellow and other different colors, each of which represents a mask. As for the use of the mask, how should it be used? Fig 4. The Commonly Used Calculus Chip-FFT Chip, Which Completes the Circuit Layout and the Winding Result ——The chip is stacked by layers of masks. First of all, it is now known that an IC will produce multiple masks. These masks have the difference between the upper and lower layers and each layer has its own task. The following figure is a simple mask example. Taking the most basic element CMOS in the integrated circuit as an example, the full name of CMOS is complementary metal oxide semiconductor. That is, the combination of NMOS and PMOS to form CMOS. As for what is a metal oxide semiconductor (MOS)? This kind of component which is widely used in the chip is more difficult to explain, and it is more difficult for the general reader to figure it out, so there is no more detailed study here. In the following figure, on the left is the circuit diagram formed after the circuit layout and winding, and you have already known that each color represents a mask. On the right is the way each mask is spread out. Production is to start from the bottom, in accordance with the method proposed in the manufacture of the IC chip, layer by layer, and finally the desired chip will be produced. Fig 5.  At this point, you should have a preliminary understanding of the IC design. The overall view is very clear that IC design is a very complex major, but also thanks to the maturity of computer-aided software, so that IC design can be accelerated. The IC design relies heavily on the wisdom of engineers, and each of the steps described here has its own expertise and can be separated into multiple professional courses. For example, writing a hardware description language does not simply require familiarity with the programming language. You also need to understand how logic circuits work, how to convert the required algorithms into programs, and how synthetic software converts programs into logic gates. What Is a Wafer? In semiconductor news, it is always mentioned in the size of the wafer, such as 8-inch or 12-inch wafer. But what is the so-called wafer? What part of it is 8 inches? What is the difficulty of producing large wafers? Here is a step-by-step introduction to the most important foundation of semiconductors-what is a "wafer". Wafer is the basis for making all kinds of computer chips. We can compare chip manufacturing to building a house with Lego blocks and building the shape we want (that is, all kinds of chips) by stacking one layer after another. However, if there is no good foundation, the built house will be tilted back and forth, contrary to our wishes. In order to make the perfect house, we need a smooth substrate. For chip manufacturing, this substrate is the wafer that will be described next. First of all, think back to when you were a child playing with Lego blocks, there would be a small round bulge on the surface of the building blocks. With this structure, we can stack the two blocks firmly together without using glue. Chip manufacturing, also in a way like this, binds subsequent atoms to the substrate. Therefore, we need to find a substrate with a neat surface in order to meet the conditions needed for subsequent manufacturing. Fig 6. In solid materials, there is a special crystal structure. That is, single crystal (Monocrystalline). It has the characteristics of atoms one after another closely arranged together, which can form a flat atomic surface. Therefore, using single crystal to make wafer can meet the above needs. However, how to produce such a material? There are two main steps, respectively, purification and crystal pulling. After this, such a material can be completed. How to Make Single Crystal Wafer? Metallurgical Purification The purification is divided into two stages. The first step is metallurgical purification. During this process, we add carbon and convert silicon oxide into silicon with a purity of more than 98% in a redox manner. Most metals, such as iron or copper, are refined in this way to obtain sufficient purity of metal. However, 98% is still not enough for chip manufacturing and still needs to be further improved. Therefore, Siemens process will be used for purification, so that the high purity polysilicon needed for semiconductor process will be obtained. Fig 7. Silicon Column Manufacturing Process Pulling the Crystal Then there is the step of pulling the crystal. First, the high purity polysilicon obtained earlier is melted to form liquid silicon. After that, the single crystal silicon seed is in contact with the liquid surface and slowly pulls up as it rotates. As for why single crystal silicon is needed, that is because silicon atoms are arranged in the same way as people queue up. They will need to arrange the head so that later people can arrange it correctly. And silicon seed is an important row head, so that the later atoms know how to queue up. Finally, after the silicon atoms leaving the liquid surface solidify, the neatly arranged single crystal silicon columns are completed. Fig 8. Single Crystal Silicon Column But what do 8 inches and 12 inches stand for? It refers to the diameter of thin wafers being treated and sliced into，which is from the surface of the part of a crystal column that looks like a pencil rod. What is the difficulty of making large wafers? As mentioned earlier, the crystal column is made as if it were making marshmallows, rotating and forming at the same time. If you have made marshmallows, you should know that it is very difficult to make large and solid marshmallows, and the same is true of the crystal pulling process. The speed of rotation and the control of temperature will affect the quality of the crystal column. As a result, the larger the size, the higher the speed and temperature requirements are, so it is more difficult to make high-quality 12-inch wafers than 8-inch wafers. However, a whole silicon column cannot be made into a chip-making substrate. In order to produce a silicon wafer, the silicon column needs to be cut transversely into a wafer with a diamond knife, and the wafer can be polished to form the silicon wafer needed for chip manufacturing. After so many steps, the fabrication of the chip substrate is complete, and the next step is to stack the house, that is, chip manufacturing. So, how to make a chip? Manufacture ——Stacked chips After introducing what silicon wafers are, you also know that making IC chips is like building a house with Lego blocks, creating the shape you want by stacking layer after layer. However, there are quite a few steps to build a house, and so is IC manufacturing. What are the steps to make IC? Next, the process of IC chip manufacturing will be introduced. What Is an IC Chip? Before we begin, we need to know what an IC chip is. IC, which means integrated circuit (Integrated Circuit), is the design of the circuit that is in the form of stacking together. In this way, we can reduce the area required to connect the circuit. The following figure is a 3D diagram of the IC circuit, from which you can see that its structure is like the beams and columns of a house. It is done layer by layer and this is the reason why IC manufacturing is compared to building a house. Fig 9. 3D Profile of IC Chip From the 3D profile of the IC chip in the image above, the dark blue part at the bottom is the wafer introduced in the previous step. From this picture, we can see more clearly how important the wafer substrate plays in the chip. As for the red and khaki parts, they are the places to be completed when IC is made. First of all, the red part can be compared to the hall on the first floor of the building. The hall on the first floor is the door of a house because everyone and everything come in and out of here. It has more functionality under the control of traffic. Therefore, compared with other floors, the construction will be more complex and requires more steps. In IC circuit, this hall is the logic gate layer; it is the most important part of the whole IC by combining a variety of logic gates together and completes the fully functional IC chip. The yellow part is like a normal floor. Compared with the first floor, there will not be much complex structure, and each floor will not change much when it is built. The purpose of this layer is to connect the logic gates of the red part. The reason why so many layers are needed is that there are so many lines to be connected that a single layer cannot hold all the lines. So it is necessary to stack a few more layers to achieve this goal. Among them, the lines of different layers will be connected up and down to meet the needs of the wiring. ——Layered construction, layer by layer architecture Once you know the construction of IC, let's show you how to make it. Imagine that if we want to make a fine drawing with a paint spray tank, we need to cut out the cover plate of the figure and cover it on paper. Then spray the paint evenly on the paper and remove the mask when the paint is dry. After repeating this step over and over again, you can complete neat and complex graphics. IC is made in a similar way, by covering up a layer of stacking. Fig 10.  When making IC, you can simply divide into the above four steps. Although the actual manufacturing steps will be different and the materials used will be different, but generally using a similar principle. This process is slightly different from painting: IC manufacturing is to paint first and then cover while painting is to cover and then paint. And the processes are described below. Metal sputtering:  Sprinkle the metal material which is to be used evenly on the wafer to form a thin film. Coating photoresistance:  First put the photoresist material on the wafer, and then hit the beam on the desired part through the mask to destroy the structure of the photoresist material. Next, use chemicals to wash away the damaged material. Etching technology:  The silicon wafer without photoresistance protection will be etched by ion beam. Photoresist removal:  Use the photoresist solution to dissolve the remaining photoresist, so that a process can be completed. Finally, a lot of IC chips will be completed on a whole wafer, and then as long as the completed square IC chips are cut off, they can be sent to the packaging factory for packaging. What is the packaging factory? We'll have to explain it later. Nano-Process What is the nano-process? Samsung and TSMC compete fiercely in advanced semiconductor processes because both of them want to take the lead in wafer contract manufacturing to win orders, which has almost become a battle between 14 nanometers and 16 nanometers. But what is the meaning of 14 nm and 16 nm, and where do they refer? What are the benefits and problems that will be brought about by the reduction of the process? Next we will give a brief description of the nano-process. How tiny is the nanometer? Before you start, you need to understand what nanometer really means. Mathematically, nanometers are 0.000000001 meters, but this is a pretty bad example. After all, we can only see a lot of zeros after the decimal point, but we don't actually feel it. If you compare it with the thickness of nail, it may be more obvious. If you actually measure it with a ruler, you can tell that the thickness of the nail is about 0.0001 meters (0.1mm), that is to say, try to cut the side of a nail into 100000 lines, each of which is about one nanometer. From this, we can slightly imagine how tiny a nanometer is. Purpose of Reducing the Process After knowing how small the nanometer is, it is necessary to understand the purpose of reducing the process. The main purpose of reducing the transistor is to insert more transistors into smaller chips so that the chip will not become larger as a result of technological advances; second, it can increase the computational efficiency of the processor; moreover, reducing the volume can also reduce the power consumption. Finally, after the chip size is reduced, it is easier to plug into the mobile device to meet the needs of thinness and lightness in the future. Come back to explore what the nano-process is and we will take 14 nm as an example. The process refers to the minimum size of 14 nm in the chip. The following figure shows the appearance of a traditional transistor, as an example. The main purpose of reducing transistor is to reduce power consumption, but which part needs to be reduced to achieve this goal? The L in the figure on the left is what we expect to shrink. By reducing the gate length, the current can be routed from the Drain side to the Source end in a shorter path (if you are interested, you can use Google to search for MOSFET, which will be explained in more detail). Fig 11. In addition, computers operate on 0 and 1. How can we use transistors to meet this purpose? The way to do this is to determine whether the transistor has current flow. When a voltage supply is made at the Gate (green square), the current will flow from the Drain to the Source, and if there is no supply voltage, the current will not flow, so that it can represent 1 and 0. (As to why 0 and 1 are used to judge, if you are interested, you can go to the Brin algebra. That is the way we use this method to make a computer.) Physical Limitations of Downsizing However, the process cannot be reduced indefinitely. When we narrow the transistor to about 20 nanometers, we will encounter problems in quantum physics, so that the transistor has a leakage phenomenon, offsetting the benefits of L. As a way to improve, the concept of FinFET (Tri-Gate) was imported, as shown in the figure above. The leakage caused by physical phenomena can be reduced by importing this technology. Fig 12. More importantly, this method can increase the contact area between the Gate end and the lower layer. In traditional practice (top left), the contact surface has only one plane, but with FinFET (Tri-Gate), the contact surface will become three-dimensional, and the contact area can be easily increased. This allows the Source-Drain side to be smaller while maintaining the same contact area, which is of considerable help in reducing the size. Finally, why would anyone say that it would be a pretty serious challenge for factories to enter the 10-nanometer process? It is mainly because the size of an atom is about 0.1 nanometers, and in the case of 10 nanometers, there are fewer than 100 atoms in a line. It is very difficult to make, and as long as there is an atomic defect, such as atoms falling out or impurities in the production process, there will be unknown phenomena, affecting the yield of the product. If you can't imagine the difficulty, you can do a small experiment. Line up a 10 × 10 square with 100 small beads on the table, cut a piece of paper to cover the beads, then brush off the beads next to it with a small brush, and finally make it form a 10 × 5 rectangle. In this way, we can know the difficulties faced by the major factories and how difficult it is to achieve this goal. Encapsulation After a long process, from design to manufacture, finally we got an IC chip. However, a chip is so small and thin that it can be easily scratched and damaged if it is not protected from the outside. In addition, because of the small size of the chip, if you do not use a larger size of the shell, it will not be easy to manually place on the circuit board. Therefore, the next step is to describe the encapsulation: Two Common Packages At present, there are two common packages; one is the DIP package, which is common in electric toys and looks like a centipede, the other is the BGA package, which is common when buying boxed CPU. As for other packaging methods, there are PGA (Pin Grid Array) used in the early CPU or an improved version of QFP (plastic square flat package) of DIP. Because there are so many packaging methods, only DIP and BGA encapsulation are described below: ——Enduring Traditional Packaging DIP Package The first thing to introduce is the Dual Inline Package (DIP), we can see from the following figure that the IC chip with this package will look like a black centipede at the foot of the dual inline connection and this is the earliest IC packaging technology. It has the advantage of low cost and is suitable for small chips without too many wires. However, because most of them are plastic, the heat dissipation effect is poor, which cannot meet the requirements of the current high-speed chips. Therefore, most of the chips using this package are durable chips, such as OP741 shown in the following figure or smaller IC chips with less speed requirements and fewer holes. Fig 13.  The IC chip shown on the left is a common voltage amplifier named OP741. On the right is its section. The package connects the chip to the leadframe with a gold wire. BGA Package As for spherical array (Ball Grid Array,BGA) packaging, compared with DIP, it is smaller and can be easily placed in smaller devices. In addition, because the pin is located under the chip, it can hold more metal pins than the DIP so it is Ideal for chips that require more contacts. However, the cost of this packaging method is high and the connection method is more complex, so it is mostly used in high unit price products. Fig 14.  On the left is a chip encapsulated in BGA. On the right is a schematic diagram of BGA using a cladding packaging. ——The rise of mobile devices and the emergence of new technologies on the stage Two Ways to Reduce Size However, the use of these packaging methods will cost a considerable amount of volume. For example, today's mobile devices, wearing devices, and so on, require quite a variety of components. If each component is packaged independently, it will cost a lot of space. Therefore, there are two ways to meet the requirements of reducing size. They are SoC (System On Chip) and SiP (System In Packet). SoC At the beginning of the rise of smart phones, the term SoC can be found in major financial magazines, but what is SoC? To put it simply, ICs with different functions are integrated into one chip. By this method, not only the volume can be reduced, but also the distance between different IC can be reduced, and the calculation speed of the chip can be improved. As for the manufacturing method, during the IC design phase, different ICs are put together and then a mask is made through the design process described earlier. However, SoC is not the only advantage; to design a SoC requires considerable technical cooperation. When IC chips are encapsulated, they have their own external protection, and the distance between IC and IC is long, so there is no interactive interference. But when all the ICs are wrapped together, it is the beginning of a nightmare. The IC design factory has to change from the original simple design IC, to the IC which requires them to understand and integrate the various functions. Therefore, it increase the workload of engineers. In addition, there will also be a lot of situations, such as the high-frequency signal of the communication chip may affect the IC of other functions and so on. In addition, SoC also needs to obtain IP (intellectual property) authorization from other vendors in order to put components designed by others into SoC. Because making SoC needs to obtain the design details of the whole IC in order to make a complete mask, which also increases the design cost of SoC. Some people may question why not just design one by yourself. That is because designing all kinds of IC requires a lot of knowledge related to the IC, only a rich enterprise like Apple can have a budget to poach top engineers from well-known enterprises. It's still a lot cheaper to design a whole new IC through collaborative licensing than to develop it by yourself. SiP As an alternative, SiP has leapt onto the stage of integrating chips. Unlike SoC, it buys IC from different enterprises and finishes the last step, which is to encapsulate the IC. In this way, the IP licensing step is eliminated and the design cost is significantly reduced. In addition, because they are independent ICs, the degree of interference with each other is greatly reduced. Fig 15. Apple Watch uses SiP technology to package the entire computer architecture into a chip, not only to meet the desired performance but also to reduce the size, so that the watch has more space for battery release. The most famous product using SiP technology is Apple Watch. Because the internal space of Watch is too small, it cannot use the traditional technology, the design cost of SoC is too high, SiP has become the first choice. With SiP technology, not only the volume can be reduced, but also the distance between each IC can be shortened, so SiP can be a feasible compromise. The following figure shows the structure of the Apple Watch chip, and you can see that quite a few IC are included in it. Fig 16. Internal configuration Diagram of S1 Chip encapsulated by SiP in Apple Watch After the packaging is completed, we will enter the testing stage. At this stage, it is necessary to confirm whether the encapsulated IC is functioning properly and that it can be shipped to the assembly plant after it is correct, so that the electronic products we can see can be made. So far, the semiconductor industry has completed the task of the whole production.

SummaryIt has been successfully demonstrated that a nanocrystal of of perovskite can serve as a quantum emitter of light, and, when coupled with a nanophotonic cavity, can dramatically improve the efficiency of the light emission by an international research team from the University of Maryland and ETH Zurich in Switzerland.  A new device features perovskite nanocrystals and a series of nanophotonic cavities. The arrows indicate the way that the UV laser used to excite the crystals, and the light  the crystals produce, move in and out of the device. Described in the Journal Applied Physics Letters ,the resulting device and method could be used to build nanolasers and optical devices that exhibit much faster response times than currently possible. Previously, there have been other quantum emitting materials that have been coupled to nanophotonic cavities. In this area, epitaxial materials such as quantum dots have garnered the most research interest. Distinct advantage to using PerovskiteHowever, the researchers believe there are some distinct advantages to using perovskite nanocrystals instead of epitaxial materials, which involve the fairly complex deposition of a crystalline layer on a crystalline substrate.Instead of the epitaxial techniques, the perovskite nanocrystals are synthesized using inexpensive colloidal chemistry techniques. This also makes it possible for these crystals to be placed on a broad range of substrates using simpler solution-deposition techniques when they are coupled to various photonic structures. The other main set of advantages for perovskites in light-emitting applications relates back to why they have become such a darling in photovoltaics: their optical and electrical properties. Perovskites exhibit a slow non-radiative decay rate and low densities of carrier-trapping defects, which contributes to their high photoluminescence efficiency at room temperature.In addition, the emission spectrum could cover the whole visible range by controlling the size and material composition, especially for the blue-green wavelengths that are otherwise difficult to access. The device operates by exciting the coupled system using a UV laser. This excites the perovskites to a higher energy level. Within a nanosecond, the exciton (an excited electron-hole pair) will decay to its ground state while transforming its energy in the form of an emitting photon. The cavity introduces more decay channels to the emitting materials, so a majority of the photons are coupled into the cavity and form the standing mode of the cavity. Finally, the researchers are able to detect the photons leaking away from the cavity, which is the emission signal. Difficult metThe problem that previous attempts have encountered in working with nanocrystal perovskites has been the material quality. “We need emitters with good photostability, so it can hold the performance when coupling to the cavities, said Yang. “Our collaborators from ETH provided perovskites that make this coupling possible.” In addition to nanolasers and faster optoelectronics, Yang believes the device they have made could increase the efficiency of existing perovskite emitting devices, such as LEDs, which could open up real-world applications in efficient illumination and displays. Before these aspirations can be realized, Yang concedes that they will need to further improve the performance and stability of the material itself. Second, it would be better to excite the material electrically rather than optically for practical use.Yang will try to realize similar devices spanning the whole visible range and the next step it to find ways to further improve and stabilize the performance and also utilizing electrical gates to excite the material in devices. Article source: Applied Physics LettersArticle edited by kynix 

(In a new concept for battery cathodes, nanometer-scale particles made of lithium and oxygen compounds (depicted in red and white) are embedded in a sponge-like lattice (yellow) of cobalt oxide, which keeps them stable.)  Engineers from MIT propose that a new lithium-oxygen battery material could be packaged in batteries that are very similar to conventional sealed batteries yet provide much more energy for their weight. Lithium-air batteries are considered highly promising technologies for electric cars and portable electronic devices because of their potential for delivering a high energy output in proportion to their weight. But such batteries have some pretty serious drawbacks: They waste much of the injected energy as heat and degrade relatively quickly. They also require expensive extra components to pump oxygen gas in and out, in an open-cell configuration that is very different from conventional sealed batteries But a new variation of the battery chemistry, which could be used in a conventional, fully sealed battery, promises similar theoretical performance as lithium-air batteries while overcoming all of these drawbacks. The new battery concept, called a nanolithia cathode battery, is described in the journal Nature Energy in a paper by Ju Li, the Battelle Energy Alliance Professor of Nuclear Science and Engineering at MIT; postdoc Zhi Zhu; and five others at MIT, Argonne National Laboratory, and Peking University in China.   One of the shortcomings of lithium-air batteries, Li explains, is the mismatch between the voltages involved in charging and discharging the batteries.  The batteries’ output voltage is more than 1.2 volts lower than the voltage used to charge them, which represents a significant power loss incurred in each charging cycle. “You waste 30 percent of the electrical energy as heat in charging. … It can actually burn if you charge it too fast,” he says.  Staying solid Conventional lithium-air batteries draw in oxygen from the outside air to drive a chemical reaction with the battery’s lithium during the discharging cycle, and this oxygen is then released again to the atmosphere during the reverse reaction in the charging cycle. In the new variant, the same kind of electrochemical reactions take place between lithium and oxygen during charging and discharging, but they take place without ever letting the oxygen revert to a gaseous form.  Instead, the oxygen stays inside the solid and transforms directly between its three redox states, while bound in the form of three different solid chemical compounds, Li2O, Li2O2, and LiO2, which are mixed together in the form of a glass.  This reduces the voltage loss by a factor of five, from 1.2 volts to 0.24 volts, so only 8 percent of the electrical energy is turned to heat. “This means faster charging for cars, as heat removal from the battery pack is less of a safety concern, as well as energy efficiency benefits,” Li says. This approach helps overcome another issue with lithium-air batteries: As the chemical reaction involved in charging and discharging converts oxygen between gaseous and solid forms, the material goes through huge volume changes that can disrupt electrical conduction paths in the structure, severely limiting its lifetime. The secret to the new formulation is creating minuscule particles, at the nanometer scale (billionths of a meter), which contain both the lithium and the oxygen in the form of a glass, confined tightly within a matrix of cobalt oxide. The researchers refer to these particles as nanolithia. In this form, the transitions between LiO2, Li2O2, and Li2O can take place entirely inside the solid material, he says. The nanolithia particles would normally be very unstable, so the researchers embedded them within the cobalt oxide matrix, a sponge-like material with pores just a few nanometers across. The matrix stabilizes the particles and also acts as a catalyst for their transformations. Conventional lithium-air batteries, Li explains, are “really lithium-dry oxygen batteries, because they really can’t handle moisture or carbon dioxide,” so these have to be carefully scrubbed from the incoming air that feeds the batteries. “You need large auxiliary systems to remove the carbon dioxide and water, and it’s very hard to do this.” But the new battery, which never needs to draw in any outside air, circumvents this issue. No overcharging The new battery is also inherently protected from overcharging, the team says, because the chemical reaction, in this case, is naturally self-limiting — when overcharged, the reaction shifts to a different form that prevents further activity.  “With a typical battery, if you overcharge it, it can cause irreversible structural damage or even explode,” Li says. But with the nanolithia battery, “we have overcharged the battery for 15 days, to a hundred times its capacity, but there was no damage at all.” In cycling tests, a lab version of the new battery was put through 120 charging-discharging cycles, and showed less than a 2 percent loss of capacity, indicating that such batteries could have a long useful lifetime.  And because such batteries could be installed and operated just like conventional solid lithium-ion batteries, without any of the auxiliary components needed for a lithium-air battery, they could be easily adapted to existing installations or conventional battery pack designs for cars, electronics, or even grid-scale power storage. Because these “solid oxygen” cathodes are much lighter than conventional lithium-ion battery cathodes, the new design could store as much as double the amount of energy for a given cathode weight, the team says. And with further refinement of the design, Li says, the new batteries could ultimately double that capacity again. All of this is accomplished without adding any expensive components or materials, according to Li. The carbonate they use as the liquid electrolyte in this battery “is the cheapest kind” of electrolyte, he says.  And the cobalt oxide component weighs less than 50 percent of the nanolithia component. Overall, the new battery system is “very scalable, cheap, and much safer” than lithium-air batteries, Li says. The team expects to move from this lab-scale proof of concept to a practical prototype within about a year. “This is a foundational breakthrough, which may shift the paradigm of oxygen-based batteries,” says Xiulei Ji, an assistant professor of chemistry at Oregon State University, who was not involved in this work.  “In this system, commercial carbonate-based electrolyte works very well with solvated superoxide shuttles, which is quite impressive and may have to do with the lack of any gaseous O2 in this sealed system. All active masses of the cathode throughout cycling are solid, which presents not only large energy density but compatibility with the current battery manufacturing infrastructure.” The research team included MIT research scientists Akihiro Kushima and Zongyou Yin; Lu Qi of Peking University; and Khalil Amine and Jun Lu of Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois. The work was supported by the National Science Foundation and the U.S. Department of Energy. Ref.KY605-CR2025VPKY605-NH12VP