The Kynix Components

The LM6172 is a Dual High Speed Voltage Feedback Amplifier. It is unity-gain stable and provides excellent DC and AC performance.CatalogProduct OverviewLM6172 Simplified SchematicLM6172 FeaturesLM6172 Package OutlineLM6172 Package DimensionsLM6172 Board Layout ExampleLM6172 Stencil Design ExampleLM6172 Performance DiscussionLM6172 Circuit OperationLM6172 Slew Rate CharacteristicReducing Settling TimeLM6172 Product AttributesLM6172 ApplicationsLM6172 Application CircuitsAlternate PartsComponent DatasheetLM6172 vs LM6172 MDRUsing WarningsLM6172 ManufacturerProduct OverviewLM6172 Voltage Feedback AmplifierLM6172 offers high performance in dual amplifiers; yet it only consumes 2.3mA of supply current each channel. It operates on ±15V power supply for systems requiring large voltage swings, such as ADSL, scanners and ultrasound equipment. It is also specified at ±5V power supply for low voltage applications such as portable video systems. The LM6172 is built with National’s advanced VIP™ III (Vertically Integrated PNP) complementary bipolar process.LM6172 Simplified SchematicLM6172 Amplifier Simplified SchematicLM6172 Features• (Typical Unless Otherwise Noted)• Easy to Use Voltage Feedback Topology• High Slew Rate 3000V/μs• Wide Unity-Gain Bandwidth 100MHz• Low Supply Current 2.3mA/Channel• High Output Current 50mA/channel• Specified for ±15V and ±5V OperationLM6172 Package OutlineSOIC - 1.75mm (max)LM6172 Package DimensionsPackage DimensionsLM6172 Board Layout ExampleLM6172 Land Pattern ExampleLM6172 Stencil Design ExampleLM6172 Stencil Design ExampleLM6172 Performance DiscussionThe LM6172 is a dual high-speed, low power, voltage feedback amplifier. It is unity-gain stable and offers outstanding performance with only 2.3mA of supply current per channel. The combination of 100MHz unity-gain bandwidth, 3000V/μs slew rate, 50mA per channel output current and other attractive features makes it easy to implement the LM6172 in various applications. Quiescent power of the LM6172 is 138mW operating at ±15V supply and 46mW at ±5V supply.LM6172 Circuit OperationThe class AB input stage in LM6172 is fully symmetrical and has a similar slewing characteristic to the current feedback amplifiers. In Figure 42, Q1 through Q4 form the equivalent of the current feedback input buffer, RE the equivalent of the feedback resistor, and stage A buffers the inverting input. The triple-buffered output stage isolates the gain stage from the load to provide low output impedance.LM6172 Slew Rate CharacteristicThe slew rate of LM6172 is determined by the current available to charge and discharge an internal high impedance node capacitor. This current is the differential input voltage divided by the total degeneration resistor RE. Therefore, the slew rate is proportional to the input voltage level, and the higher slew rates are achievable in the lower gain configurations.When a very fast large signal pulse is applied to the input of an amplifier, some overshoot or undershoot occurs. By placing an external series resistor such as 1kΩ to the input of LM6172, the slew rate is reduced to help lower the overshoot, which reduces settling time.Reducing Settling TimeThe LM6172 has a very fast slew rate that causes overshoot and undershoot. To reduce settling time on LM6172, a 1kΩ resistor can be placed in series with the input signal to decrease slew rate. A feedback capacitor can also be used to reduce overshoot and undershoot. This feedback capacitor serves as a zero to increase the stability of the amplifier circuit. A 2pF feedback capacitor is recommended for initial evaluation. When the LM6172 is configured as a buffer, a feedback resistor of 1kΩ must be added in parallel to the feedback capacitor. Another possible source of overshoot and undershoot comes from capacitive load at the output.LM6172 Product AttributesSpecificationsValuesArchitectureVoltage FBNumber of channels (#)2Total supply voltage (Min) (+5V=5, +/-5V=10)5.5Total supply voltage (Max) (+5V=5, +/-5V=10)36GBW (Typ) (MHz)100BW @ Acl (MHz)160Acl, min spec gain (V/V)1Slew rate (Typ) (V/us)3000Vn at flatband (Typ) (nV/rtHz)12Vn at 1 kHz (Typ) (nV/rtHz)12Iq per channel (Typ) (mA)2.3Vos (offset voltage @ 25 C) (Max) (mV)1.5Rail-to-railNoRatingCatalogOperating temperature range (C)-40 to 85CMRR (Typ) (dB)110Input bias current (Max) (pA)1500000Offset drift (Typ) (uV/C)6Output current (Typ) (mA)852nd harmonic (dBc)503rd harmonic (dBc)50Lead FreeLead FreeRadiation HardeningNoRoHSCompliantLM6172 Applications• Scanner I-to-V Converters• ADSL/HDSL Drivers • Multimedia Broadcast Systems• Video Amplifiers • NTSC, PAL and SECAM Systems• ADC/DAC Buffers• Pulse Amplifiers and Peak DetectorsLM6172 Application CircuitsIsolation Resistor Used to Drive Capacitive Load Compensating for Input Capacitance Power Supply Bypassing Differential Line DriverAlternate PartsLM6172AMWG-QML, LM6172AMGWRLQV, LM6172IN/NOPBComponent DatasheetLM6172 PDFLM6172 vs LM6172 MDRSpecificationsLM6172LM6172 MDRRohs CodeYes*Part Life Cycle CodeActiveObsoleteIhs ManufacturerTEXAS INSTRUMENTS INCTEXAS INSTRUMENTS INCPart Package CodeDIESOICPackage DescriptionDIESOPReach Compliance CodeCompliantUnknownECCN CodeEAR99EAR99HTS Code8542.33.00.018542.33.00.01ArchitectureVOLTAGE-FEEDBACK*Average Bias Current-Max (IIB)2.5 µA*Bias Current-Max (IIB) @25C2.5 µA*Common-mode Reject Ratio-Min70 dB*Common-mode Reject Ratio-Nom110 dB*Input Offset Voltage-Max1500 µV*JESD-30 CodeX-XUUC-NR-CDSO-G16Moisture Sensitivity Level11Neg Supply Voltage Limit-Max-18 V*Neg Supply Voltage-Nom (Vsup)-5 V*Number of Functions21Operating Temperature-Max125 °C85 °COperating Temperature-Min85 °C-55 °CPackage Body MaterialUNSPECIFIEDUNSPECIFIEDPackage CodeDIESOPPackage ShapeUNSPECIFIEDRECTANGULARPackage StyleUNCASED CHIPSMALL OUTLINEScreening LevelMIL-PRF-38535 Class V*Slew Rate-Nom3000 V/us*Supply Current-Max6 mA*Supply Voltage Limit-Max18 V36 VSupply Voltage-Nom (Vsup)5 V55 VSurface MountYESYESTechnologyBIPOLARBIPOLARTemperature GradeMILITARYINDUSTRIALTerminal FormNO LEADGULL WINGTerminal PositionUPPER*Total Dose100k Rad(Si) V*Using WarningsPlease be aware that an important notice concerning availability, standard warranty, and use in critical applications of Texas Instruments semiconductor products and disclaimers thereto appears at the end of this data sheet.LM6172 ManufacturerTexas Instruments Incorporated is an American technology company headquartered in Dallas, Texas, that designs and manufactures semiconductors and various integrated circuits, which it sells to electronics designers and manufacturers globally.

Product OverviewThe Atmel® ATmega128A is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR® enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega128A achieves throughputs close to 1MIPS per MHz. This empowers system designer to optimize the device for power consumption versus processing speed. This blog will introduce ATMEGA128A-AU systematically from its features, pinout to its specifications, applications, also including ATMEGA128A-AU datasheet and so much more. CatalogProduct OverviewRelated Video IntroductionATMEGA128A-AU FeaturesATMEGA128A-AU PinoutATMEGA128A-AU CAD ModelsATMEGA128A-AU Block DiagramSystem Clock and Clock OptionsATMEGA128A-AU PackageATMEGA128A-AU SpecificationATMEGA128A-AU ManufacturerATMEGA128A-AU DatasheetUsing WarningsATMEGA128A-AU FAQ Related Video Introduction Video: Arduino ATMega128 ATMEGA128A-AU FeaturesHigh-performance, Low-power Atmel AVR 8-bit MicrocontrollerAdvanced RISC Architecture– 133 Powerful Instructions - Most Single-clock Cycle Execution– 32 × 8 General Purpose Working Registers + Peripheral ControlRegisters– Fully Static Operation– Up to 16MIPS Throughput at 16MHz– On-chip 2-cycle MultiplierHigh Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments– 128Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory– 4Kbytes EEPROM– 4Kbytes Internal SRAM– Write/Erase cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM– Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C(1)– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock BitsIn-System Programming by On-chip Boot ProgramTrue Read-While-Write Operation– Up to 64 Kbytes Optional External Memory Space– Programming Lock for Software Security– SPI Interface for In-System ProgrammingJTAG (IEEE std. 1149.1 Compliant) Interface– Boundary-scan Capabilities According to the JTAG Standard– Extensive On-chip Debug Support– Programming of Flash, EEPROM, Fuses and Lock Bits through the JTAG InterfaceAtmel QTouch® library support– Capacitive touch buttons, sliders and wheels– Atmel QTouch and QMatrix acquisition– Up to 64 sense channelsPeripheral Features– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and Compare Modes– Two Expanded 16-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode and CaptureMode– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator– Two 8-bit PWM Channels– 6 PWM Channels with Programmable Resolution from 2 to 16 Bits– Output Compare Modulator– 8-channel, 10-bit ADC8 Single-ended Channels7 Differential Channels2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x, 10x, or 200x– Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface– Dual Programmable Serial USARTs– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface– Programmable Watchdog Timer with On-chip Oscillator– On-chip Analog ComparatorSpecial Microcontroller Features– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection– Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator– External and Internal Interrupt Sources– Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby, and Extended Standby– Software Selectable Clock Frequency– ATmega103 Compatibility Mode Selected by a Fuse– Global Pull-up DisableI/O and Packages– 53 Programmable I/O Lines– 64-lead TQFP and 64-pad QFN/MLFOperating Voltages– 2.7 - 5.5VSpeed Grades– 0 - 16MHz ATMEGA128A-AU PinoutThe following figure is the diagram of ATMEGA128A-AU pinout. ATMEGA128A-AU Pinout ATMEGA128A-AU CAD ModelsThe following are ATMEGA128A-AU Symbol, Footprint, and 3D Model. ATMEGA128A-AU Symbol ATMEGA128A-AU Footprint ATMEGA128A-AU 3D Model ATMEGA128A-AU Block DiagramThe following figure shows the block diagram of ATMEGA128A-AU. ATMEGA128A-AU Block Diagram System Clock and Clock OptionsThe following figures show system clock and clock options of ATMEGA128A-AU. Clock Distribution Crystal Oscillator Connections External RC Configuration External Clock Drive Configuration ATMEGA128A-AU PackageThe following diagram shows the ATMEGA128A-AU package. ATMEGA128A-AU Package Notes: 1.This package conforms to JEDEC reference MS-026, Variation AEB.Dimensions D1 and E1 do not include mold protrusion. Allowableprotrusion is 0.25mm per side. Dimensions D1 and E1 are maximumplastic body size dimensions including mold mismatch.Lead coplanarity is 0.10mm maximum ATMEGA128A-AU SpecificationProduct AttributeAttribute ValueManufacturer:MicrochipProduct Category:8-bit Microcontrollers - MCUSeries:ATmega128AMounting Style:SMD/SMTPackage / Case:TQFP-64Core:AVRProgram Memory Size:128 kBData Bus Width:8 bitADC Resolution:10 bitMaximum Clock Frequency:16 MHzNumber of I/Os:53 I/OData RAM Size:4 kBOperating Supply Voltage:2.7 V to 5.5 VMinimum Operating Temperature:- 40 CMaximum Operating Temperature:+ 105 CPackaging:TrayBrand:Microchip Technology / AtmelData RAM Type:SRAMData ROM Size:4 kBData ROM Type:EEPROMHeight:1 mmInterface Type:JTAGLength:14 mmMoisture Sensitive:YesNumber of ADC Channels:8 ChannelNumber of Timers/Counters:4 TimerProcessor Series:megaAVR ATMEGA128A-AU ManufacturerAtmel Corporation is a global leader in designing, manufacturing and marketing advanced semiconductors including microcontroller (MCU), programmable logic, and nonvolatile memory. By combining these core technologies, Atmel meets the evolving and growing needs of today's electronic system design engineer through the production of general purpose and application specific system level integrated chips. Atmel's world class expertise and wealth of experience in system-level integration enable all of Atmel's products to be developed from their constituent blocks with minimum delay and risk. ATMEGA128A-AU DatasheetYou can download ATMEGA128A-AU datasheet from the link given below:ATMEGA128A-AU Datasheet Using WarningsNote: Please check their parameters and pin configuration before replacing them in your circuit. ATMEGA128A-AU FAQWhat is the Atmel® ATmega128A based on? AVR® enhanced RISC architecture. How many times does the ATmega128A achieve throughputs? 1MIPS per MHz. What is the advantage of the ATmega128A?Power consumption versus processing speed. What is microcontroller and how it works?Microcontrollers are embedded inside devices to control the actions and features of a product. Hence, they can also be referred to as embedded controllers. They run one specific program and are dedicated to a single task. They are low power devices with dedicated input devices and small LED or LCD display outputs. What are microcontrollers used for?Microcontroller is a compressed micro computer manufactured to control the functions of embedded systems in office machines, robots, home appliances, motor vehicles, and a number of other gadgets. A microcontroller is comprises components like - memory, peripherals and most importantly a processor.  

CatalogFEATURESDESCRIPTIONPIN CONNECTIONSABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGSTHERMAL DATABLOCK DIAGRAMELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICSTEST CIRCUITRECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONSPRINCIPLES OF OPERATIONOUTLINE AND MECHANICAL DATADatasheet PDF DownloadSG3525 FAQ FEATURES8 TO 35 V OPERATION5.1 V REFERENCE TRIMMED TO ± 1 %100 Hz TO 500 KHz OSCILLATOR RANGESEPARATE OSCILLATOR SYNC TERMINALADJUSTABLE DEADTIME CONTROLINTERNAL SOFT-STARTPULSE-BY-PULSE SHUTDOWNINPUT UNDERVOLTAGE LOCKOUT WITH HYSTERESISLATCHING PWM TO PREVENT MULTIPLE PULSESDUAL SOURCE/SINK OUTPUT DRIVERS DESCRIPTIONThe SG3525A series of pulse width modulator inte- grated circuits are designed to offer improved per- formance and lowered external parts count when used in designing all types of switching power sup- plies. The on-chip + 5.1 V reference is trimmed to ± 1 % and the input common-mode range of the error amplifier includes the reference voltage eliminating external resistors. A sync input to the oscillator al- lows multiple units to be slaved or a single unit to be synchronized to an external system clock. A single resistor between the CT and the discharge terminals provide a wide range of dead time ad- justment. These devices also feature built-in soft-start circuitry with only an external timing capacitor required. A shutdown terminal controls both the soft-start circu- ity and the output stages, providing instantaneous turn off through the PWM latch with pulsed shut- down, as well as soft-start recycle with longer shut- down commands. These functions are also control- led by an undervoltage lockout which keeps the out- puts off and the soft-start capacitor discharged for sub-normal input voltages. This lockout circuitry in- cludes approximately 500 mV of hysteresis for jitter- free operation. Another feature of these PWM cir- cuits is a latch following the comparator. Once a PWM pulses has been terminated for any reason, the outputs will remain off for the duration of the pe- riod. The latch is reset with each clock pulse. The output stages are totem-pole designs capable of sourcing or sinking in excess of 200 mA. The SG3525A output stage features NOR logic, giving a LOW output for an OFF state.PIN CONNECTIONSABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGSSymbolParameterValueUnitViSupply Voltage40VVCCollector Supply Voltage40VIOSCOscillator Charging Current5mAIoOutput Current, Source or Sink500mAIRReference Output Current50mAITCurrent through CT Terminal Logic InputsAnalog Inputs5– 0.3 to + 5.5– 0.3 to VimA V VPtotTotal Power Dissipation at Tamb = 70 °C1000mWTjJunction Temperature Range– 55 to 150°CTstgStorage Temperature Range– 65 to 150°CTopOperating Ambient Temperature :  SG2525ASG3525A– 25 to 850 to 70°C°CTHERMAL DATASymbolParameterSO16DIP16UnitRth j-pinsThermal Resistance Junction-pinsMax 50° C/WRth j-ambThermal Resistance Junction-ambientMax 80° C/WRth j-aluminaThermal Resistance Junction-alumina (*)Max50 ° C/WBLOCK DIAGRAMELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICSSymbol Parameter Test ConditionsSG2525ASG3525A UnitMin.Typ.Max.Min.Typ.Max.REFERENCE SECTIONVREFOutput VoltageTj = 25 °C5.055.15.1555.15.2VDVREFLine RegulationVi = 8 to 35 V 1020 1020mVDVREFLoad RegulationIL = 0 to 20 mA 2050 2050mVDVREF/DT*Temp. StabilityOver Operating Range 2050 2050mV*Total Output VariationLine, Load and Temperature5 5.24.95 5.25V Short Circuit CurrentVREF = 0 Tj = 25 °C 80100 80100mA*Output Noise Voltage10 Hz £f £ 10 kHz, Tj = 25 °C 40200 40200mVrmsDVREF*Long Term StabilityTj = 125 °C, 1000 hrs 2050 2050mVOSCILLATOR SECTION * **, ·Initial AccuracyTj = 25 °C ± 2± 6 ± 2± 6%*, ·Voltage StabilityVi = 8 to 35 V ± 0.3± 1 ± 1± 2%Df/DT*Temperature StabilityOver Operating Range ± 3± 6 ± 3± 6%fMINMinimum FrequencyRT = 200 KW CT = 0.1 mF  120  120HzfMAXMaximum FrequencyRT = 2 KW CT = 470 pF400  400  KHz Current MirrorIRT = 2 mA1.722.21.722.2mA*, ·Clock Amplitude 33.5 33.5 V*, ·Clock WidthTj = 25 °C0.30.510.30.51ms Sync Threshold 1.222.81.222.8V Sync Input CurrentSync Voltage = 3.5 V 12.5 12.5mAERROR AMPLIFIER SECTION (VCM = 5.1 V)VOSInput Offset Voltage  0.55 210mVIbInput Bias Current  110 110mAIosInput Offset Current   1  1mA DC Open Loop GainRL ³ 10 MW6075 6075 dB*Gain Bandwidth ProductGv = 0 dB Tj = 25 °C12 12 MHz*, ❚DC Transconduct.30 KW £ RL £ 1 MW Tj = 25 °C1.11.5 1.11.5 ms Output Low Level  0.20.5 0.20.5V Output High Level 3.85.6 3.85.6 VCMRComm. Mode Reject.VCM = 1.5 to 5.2 V6075 6075 dBPSRSupply Voltage RejectionVi = 8 to 35 V5060 5060 dB Symbol Parameter Test ConditionsSG2525ASG3525A UnitMin.Typ.Max.Min.Typ.Max.PWM COMPARATOR Minimum Duty-cycle   0  0%·Maximum Duty-cycle 4549 4549 %·Input ThresholdZero Duty-cycle0.70.9 0.70.9 VMaximum Duty-cycle 3.33.6 3.33.6V*Input Bias Current  0.051 0.051mASHUTDOWN SECTION Soft Start CurrentVSD = 0 V, VSS = 0 V255080255080mA Soft Start Low LevelVSD = 2.5 V 0.40.7 0.40.7V Shutdown ThresholdTo outputs, VSS = 5.1 V Tj = 25 °C0.60.810.60.81V Shutdown Input CurrentVSD = 2.5 V 0.41 0.41mA*Shutdown DelayVSD = 2.5 V Tj = 25 °C 0.20.5 0.20.5msOUTPUT DRIVERS (each output) (VC = 20 V) Output Low LevelIsink = 20 mA 0.20.4 0.20.4VIsink = 100 mA 12 12V Output High LevelIsource = 20 mA1819 1819 VIsource = 100 mA1718 1718 V Under-Voltage LockoutVcomp and Vss = High678678VICCollector LeakageVC = 35 V  200  200mAtr*Rise TimeCL = 1 nF, Tj = 25 °C 100600 100600nstf*Fall TimeCL = 1 nF, Tj = 25 °C 50300 50300nsTOTAL STANDBY CURRENTIsSupply CurrentVi = 35 V 1420 1420mATEST CIRCUITRECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONSParameterValueInput Voltage (Vi)8 to 35 VCollector Supply Voltage (VC)4.5 to 35 VSink/Source Load Current (steady state)0 to 100 mASink/Source Load Current (peak)0 to 400 mAReference Load Current0 to 20 mAOscillator Frequency Range100 Hz to 400 KHzOscillator Timing Resistor2 KW to 150 KWOscillator Timing Capacitor0.001 mF to 0.1 mFDead Time Resistor Range0 to 500 WPRINCIPLES OF OPERATIONSince both the compensation and soft-start terminals (Pins 9 and 8) have current source pull-ups, either can readily accept a pull-down signal which only has to sink a maximum of 100 µAto turn off the outputs. This is subject to the added requirement of discharging whatever external capacitance may be attached to these pins. An alternate approach is the use of the shutdown circuitry of Pin 10 which has been improved to enhance the available shutdown options. Activating this circuit by applying a positive signal on Pin 10 performs two functions : the PWM latch is immediately set providing the fastest turn-off signal to the outputs ; and a 150 µA current sink begins to discharge the external soft-start capacitor. If the shutdown command is short, the PWM signal is terminated without significant discharge of the soft-start capacitor, thus, allowing, for example, a convenient implementation of pulse-by-pulse current limiting.Holding Pin 10 high for a longer duration, however,will ultimately discharge this external capacitor, recycling slow turn-on upon release. Pin 10 should not be left floating as noise pickup could conceivably interrupt normal operation.    OUTLINE AND MECHANICAL DATADIM.mminchMIN.TYP.MAX.MIN.TYP.MAX.A  1.75  0.069a10.1 0.250.004 0.009a2  1.6  0.063b0.35 0.460.014 0.018b10.19 0.250.007 0.010C 0.5  0.020 c145˚ (typ.)D (1)9.8 100.386 0.394E5.8 6.20.228 0.244e 1.27  0.050 e3 8.89  0.350 F (1)3.8 40.150 0.157G4.6 5.30.181 0.209L0.4 1.270.016 0.050M  0.62  0.024S8˚(max.) Datasheet PDF DownloadYou can download the datasheet the link given below.SG3525-DatasheetSG3525 FAQWhat does a pulse width modulator do?Pulse width modulation turns a digital signal into an analog signal by changing the timing of how long it stays on and off. The term “duty cycle” is used to describe the percentage or ratio of how long it stays on compared to when it turns off. What is pulse width modulator explain the types?Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a fancy term for describing a type of digital signal. Pulse width modulation is used in a variety of applications including sophisticated control circuitry. A common way we use them here at SparkFun is to control dimming of RGB LEDs or to control the direction of a servo. What is meant by pulse width?From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The pulse width is a measure of the elapsed time between the leading and trailing edges of a single pulse of energy. The measure is typically used with electrical signals and is widely used in the fields of radar and power supplies. What is PWM in IOT?Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a process of reducing distortion in a communication system. It is in use for encoding the amplitude of a signal into the tim of another signal for transmission. What is unit of pulse width?The basic unit of measure for PRF is hertz (Hz). Use PRF to report the number of pulses per second. Look at a 1 GHz clock signal as an example. The clock signal is a continuing stream of pulses at a PRF of 1 GHz. 

Product OverviewThe MCP4728 device is a quad, 12-bit voltage output Digital-to-Analog Convertor (DAC) with nonvolatile memory (EEPROM). Its on-board precision output amplifier allows it to achieve rail-to-rail analog output swing. This blog will introduce MCP4728 systematically from its features, pinout to its specifications, applications, also including MCP4728 datasheet and so much more. CatalogProduct OverviewMCP4728 TutorialMCP4728 FeaturesMCP4728 PinoutMCP4728 Block DiagramMCP4728 ApplicationsMCP4728-E/UN SpecificationMCP4728-E/UN CAD ModelsMCP4728 Address MappingMCP4728 ManufacturerMCP4728 DatasheetUsing WarningsMCP4728 FAQ MCP4728 Tutorial Video: Tutorial on Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) and Example Using the MCP4728 Part 1 Video: Tutorial on Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) and Example Using the MCP4728 Part 2 MCP4728 Features12-Bit Voltage Output DAC with Four Buffered      OutputsOn-Board Nonvolatile Memory (EEPROM) for     DAC Codes and I2C™ Address BitsInternal or External Voltage Reference SelectionOutput Voltage Range:- Using Internal VREF (2.048V):    0.000V to 2.048V with Gain Setting = 1    0.000V to 4.096V with Gain Setting = 2- Using External VREF (VDD):    0.000V to VDD±0.2 Least Significant Bit (LSB) Differential     Nonlinearity (DNL) (typical)Fast Settling Time: 6 µs (typical)Normal or Power-Down ModeLow Power ConsumptionSingle-Supply Operation: 2.7V to 5.5VI2C Interface:- Address bits: User Programmable to     EEPROM- Standard (100 kbps), Fast (400 kbps) and    High Speed (HS) Mode (3.4 Mbps)10-Lead MSOP PackageExtended Temperature Range: -40°C to +125°C MCP4728 PinoutThe chip comes in a small, 10 pin, MSOP (Medium Square Outline Package) - an SMD device. MCP4728 Pinout MCP4728 Block DiagramThe following figure shows the block diagram of MCP4728. MCP4728 Block Diagram MCP4728 ApplicationsSet Point or Offset AdjustmentSensor CalibrationClosed-Loop Servo ControlLow Power Portable InstrumentationPC PeripheralsProgrammable Voltage and Current SourceIndustrial Process ControlInstrumentationBias Voltage Adjustment for Power Amplifiers MCP4728-E/UN SpecificationProduct AttributeAttribute ValueManufacturer:MicrochipProduct Category:Digital to Analog Converters - DACResolution:12 bitNumber of Channels:4 ChannelSettling Time:6 usOutput Type:Voltage BufferedInterface Type:2-Wire, I2CAnalog Supply Voltage:2.7 V to 5.5 VDigital Supply Voltage:2.7 V to 5.5 VMinimum Operating Temperature:- 40 CMaximum Operating Temperature:+ 125 CMounting Style:SMD/SMTPackage / Case:MSOP-10Qualification:AEC-Q100Packaging:TubeHeight:0.85 mmNumber of Converters:4 ConverterArchitecture:Resistor-StringBrand:Microchip TechnologyDNL - Differential Nonlinearity:+/- 0.2 LSBINL - Integral Nonlinearity:+/- 2 LSBMoisture Sensitive:YesOperating Supply Current:110 mAOperating Supply Voltage:3.3 V, 5 VProduct Type:DACs - Digital to Analog ConvertersReference Voltage:2.048 VSubcategory:Data Converter ICsSupply Voltage - Max:5.5 VSupply Voltage - Min:2.7 VUnit Weight:0.007760 oz  MCP4728-E/UN CAD ModelsFollowings are MCP4728-E/UN Symbol, Footprint, and 3D Model. MCP4728-E/UN Symbol MCP4728-E/UN Footprint MCP4728-E/UN 3D Model MCP4728 Address MappingThe lower three bits of the address consist of the three digital inputs A2, A1, A0 while the upper bits are fixed at 1100xxx. Unlike the both the MCP4725 and MCP4726 A0, A1 and A2 are fully programmable with their state stored into internal EEPROM. There is an option for the manufacturer to program these bits for you which would be useful on a large production run. The the last bit( LSB ' 'L), sent following the address bits, is ignored as it is the read write bit (R/Wn). Therefore the addresses available are:         0x60, 0x61, 0x62, 0x63, 0x64, 0x65, 0x66, 0x67 For use in a simple system you will only need a single address 0x60 since that device will provide 4 DAC outputs. MCP4728 ManufacturerMicrochip Technology Incorporated is a leading provider of smart, connected and secure embedded control solutions. Its easy-to-use development tools and comprehensive product portfolio enable customers to create optimal designs, which reduce risk while lowering total system cost and time to market. The company's solutions serve more than 120,000 customers across the industrial, automotive, consumer, aerospace and defense, communications and computing markets. Microchip offers outstanding technical support along with dependable delivery and quality. MCP4728 DatasheetMCP4728 Datasheet Using WarningsNote: Please check their parameters and pin configuration before replacing them in your circuit. MCP4728 FAQ① What is the mcp4728 quad Digital to analog converter?The MCP4728 device is a quad, 12-bit voltage output Digital-to-Analog Convertor (DAC) with nonvolatile memory (EEPROM). Its on-board precision output amplifier allows it to achieve rail-to-rail analog output swing. ② What is the reference voltage of the mcp4728?The MCP4728 is an analogue DAC giving you four buffered output voltages controlled from an I2C serial interface. Each DAC can output a proportion of the input reference voltage. Since it's a 12bit device its resolution is Vref/4096. So you can choose very fine steps dividing down from the reference. ③ How many DAC outputs does the mcp4728 have?The EEPROM address defaults to zero, so if you only need four DAC outputs, you don't need to program anything just use I2C address 0x60. With the MCP4728 you get four DAC outputs for every chip, giving you 32 possible DAC outputs on a single I2C bus. TIP: Power down unused DAC chains to save current used. ④ Can a mcp4728 communicate with an Arduino?Wiring the MCP4728 to communicate with your microcontroller is straightforward thanks to the I2C interface. For these examples, we can use the Metro or Arduino to update the DAC. The instructions below show a Metro, but the same applies to an Arduino. ⑤ What does DAC stand for in audio category?DAC is an acronym for Digital to Analog Converter. Any time you want to listen to a digital audio signal through an analog output you need a DAC to convert the digital signal from the source into an analog signal at the point of connection.

1. HC is COMS level and HCT is TTL level;2. LS input open circuit is high level, HC input is not allowed to open circuit. HC generally requires a pull-up and pull-down resistor to determine the level when the input terminal is invalid. But LS does not have this requirement;3. LS output pull-down is strong, pull-up is weak, HC pull-up and pull-down are the same;4. Working voltage: LS can only use 5V, while HC is generally 2V to 6V;5. CMOS can drive TTL, but not vice versa. When the TTL circuit drives the COMS circuit, a pull-up resistor needs to be added to pull up the voltage between 2.4V and 3.6V, so that the CMOS can detect the high-level input;6. The driving ability is different. The driving ability of LS is generally 5mA for high level and 20mA for low level; while the high and low level of CMOS are both 5mA;7. RS232 level is +12V for logic negative, -12 for logic positive;8. The 74 series are for commercial use and 54 are for military use9, TTL high level> 2.4V and TTL low level <0.4V, with noise tolerance 0.4V10. OC gate, which is an open-collector gate circuit (why is there an OC gate? Because of the realization of "wire-AND" logic), OD gate, which is an open-drain gate circuit, must be pulled up by an external resistor and power supply to switch the level Used as high and low level. Otherwise, it is generally only used to switch high voltage and high current loads, so it is also called drive gate circuit. And it can only absorb current, and only an external pull-up resistor and power supply can output current externally.11. If the input current of COMS exceeds 1mA, COMS may be burnt out12. When connecting a long signal transmission line, connect a matching resistor to the COMS circuit terminal13. Connect a 10K resistor in series at the input of the gate circuit and then input a low level. The input end shows a high level instead of a low level.14. If there is a 3.3V COMS circuit to drive a 5VCMOS circuit in the circuit, such as a 3.3V microcontroller to drive 74HC, there are several ways to solve this situation. The simplest is to directly replace the 74HC with a 74HCT chip, because 3.3VCMOS can directly drive a 5V TTL circuit; or add a voltage conversion chip; another is to set the I/O port of the microcontroller to open drain, and then add a pull-up resistor to 5V. In this case, you need to adjust the resistance according to the actual situation. Size to ensure the rising edge time of the signal.15. The load current when the logic gate output is high level (sourcing current), and the load current when the logic gate output is low level (sinking current)16. Since the drain stage is open, the subsequent circuit must be connected to a pull-up resistor, and the power supply voltage of the pull-up resistor can determine the output level. In this way, the open-drain form can be connected to devices of different levels for level conversion. One thing to note: The load is charged by an external pull-up passive resistor during the rising edge, so the rising edge time may not be fast enough, try to use the falling edge17. Several level conversion methods:(1) Transistor + pull-up resistor methodIt is a bipolar transistor or MOSFET, the C/D pole is connected to a pull-up resistor to the positive power supply, the input level is very flexible, and the output level is roughly the positive power level.(2) OC/OD device + pull-up resistor methodSimilar to 1). It is suitable for occasions where the device output happens to be OC/OD.(3) 74xHCT series chip boost (3.3V→5V)Any 5VCMOS device whose input is compatible with 5VTTL level can be used for 3.3V→5V level conversion.——This is because the level of 3.3VCMOS is just compatible with the level of 5VTTL (coincidence), while the output level of CMOS is always close to the power supply level.Inexpensive choices such as 74xHCT (HCT/AHCT/VHCT/AHCT1G/VHCT1G/...) series (the letter T means TTL compatible).(4) Over-limit input step-down method (5V→3.3V, 3.3V→1.8V,...)Any logic device that allows the input level to exceed the power supply can be used to reduce the level.The "over-limit" here refers to exceeding the power supply. Many older devices do not allow the input voltage to exceed the power supply, but more and more new devices cancel this limitation (change the input-level protection circuit).For example, 74AHC/VHC series chips, its datasheets clearly indicate "input voltage range is 0~5.5V", if 3.3V power supply is used, 5V→3.3V level conversion can be realized.(5) Dedicated level conversion chipThe most famous is the 164245, which can not only be used as a boost/buck, but also allows the power supplies on both sides to be asynchronous. This is the most common level conversion scheme, but it is also very expensive. Therefore, if it is not necessary, it is best to use the first two options.(6) Resistance divider methodThis is the easiest way to reduce the level. With 5V level, divided by 1.6k+3.3k resistors, it is 3.3V.(7) Current limiting resistance method18. Non-polarized capacitors and polarized capacitors: The package of the former is basically 0805,0603. The latter uses aluminum electrolytic capacitors at most, better tantalum capacitors19.PQFP (Plastic Quad Flat Package), BGA (Ball Grid Array Package), PGA (Pin Grid Array Package), PLCC (Plastic Leaded Chip Carrier), SOP (Small Outline Package), TOSP (Thin Small Outline Package), SOIC (Small Outline Integrated Circuit Package)Common packaging forms of integrated circuits:QFP (quad flatpa ckage) has gull wing feet on all sides (package)BGA (ball gridarray) ball grid array (package)PLCC (plastic leaded chip carrier) has inner hook type pins on four sides (package)SOJ (small out line junction) has inner hook type pins on both sides (package)SOIC (small out line integrated circuit) has gull-wing pins on both sides (package)20. Shielded wires have a strong inhibitory effect on static electricity, and twisted-pair wires also have a certain inhibitory effect on electromagnetic induction.21. Analog signal sampling anti-jamming technology: it is possible to use a measuring amplifier with differential input, use shielded double glue lines to transmit measurement signals, or change voltage signals to current signals, and use resistance-capacitance filtering techniques22. Do not leave unused IC pins floating in order to avoid interference. The positive input terminal of the unused operational amplifier is grounded, and the negative input terminal is connected to the output. The unused I/O ports of the MCU are defined as outputs. There are more than one power and ground terminals on the single-chip microcomputer, each of which must be connected, and should not be left floating23. Color ring representation of resistance value: ordinary color ring resistors are represented by 4 rings, and precision resistors are represented by 5 rings.24. The function of resistance is shunting, current limiting, voltage division, biasing, filtering (used in combination with capacitors) and impedance matching, etc.25. The role of capacitors: DC blocking, bypass, coupling, filtering, compensation, charging and discharging, energy storage, etc.26. The digital representation unit of general capacitors is pF, and electrolytic capacitors are generally uF27. The main performance indicators of the capacitor:The capacity of the capacitor (that is, the capacity of the stored charge);Withstand voltage (refers to the maximum DC voltage or the effective value of the maximum AC voltage at which the capacitor can work reliably for a long time within the rated temperature range);Temperature resistance value (indicating the maximum operating temperature that the capacitor can withstand.).28. The role of inductors: filter, trap, oscillate, store magnetic energy, etc.29. Classification of inductors: air core inductance and magnetic core inductance. Magnetic core inductance can also be called iron core inductance and copper core inductance, etc.30.Classification of semiconductor diodesClassified by material: silicon diode and germanium diode;According to the purpose: rectifier diode, detector diode, voltage stabilizer diode, light emitting diode, photodiode, varactor diode.31. The field effect tube is a voltage control element, and the transistor is a current control element. When only allowing less current to be drawn from the signal source, FETs should be used; and when the signal voltage is low and allowing more current to be drawn from the signal source, transistors should be used32. Socket is a form of socket packaging, which is a rectangular socket;Slot is a form of slot packaging, a rectangular slot33. Crystal oscillator measurement method: use the multimeter RX10K file to measure the positive and negative resistance values ​​of the quartz crystal oscillator. Normally, it should be infinite. If the measured resistance of the quartz crystal oscillator is zero or zero, it means that the quartz crystal oscillator has a certain resistance value or zero. The crystal oscillator has leaked or broken down34.When the IO port outputs high level, the driving ability is the lowest, and the external display is the push current;When the IO port outputs a low level, the drive capacity is the largest, and the external display is a source of current35. If the peripheral integrated digital drive circuit is driving an inductive load, a current limiting resistor or a diode must be added36.9013 provides a drive current of 300mA37.The output data should be latched (the peripheral speed cannot keep up, so it needs to be latched);The input data should have a three-state buffer (a high-impedance state is added to not affect the internal data bus)38. 8-bit parallel output port (must have a latch function): 74LS377, 74LS27 3.8-bit parallel input port (must be a three-state gate): 74LS373, 74LS24439. Serial port expansion parallel port, parallel input port: 74LS165. Parallel output port: 74LS16440. There are three keyboard working modes:1. Program scan mode2. Timing scan mode3. Interruption mode.An IO port can also be specially designed for the design of dual function keys (upshift key and downshift key)41. For TTL loads, DC load characteristics should be mainly considered, because TTL has a large current and small distributed capacitance. For MOS-type loads, AC load characteristics should be mainly considered, because the input current of MOS-type loads is small, and distributed capacitance is mainly considered42. Pay special attention to the concept of bus load balancing!43. The benefits of pull-up resistors:1. Increase the signal level2. Improve the anti-electromagnetic interference ability of the bus (electromagnetic signals enter the CPU through DB)3. Suppress electrostatic interference (CMOS chip)4. Reflected wave interference (long-distance transmission)44. When voltage stabilizing, it is better to use two-stage integrated voltage stabilizing chip.45. Impedance matching of transmission line:1. Terminal parallel impedance matching (high level drops)2. The start end is matched in series (low level is raised)3. Terminal parallel DC isolation matching (RC series grounding)4. Terminal connected to clamp diode46. ​​There are two types of grounding: shell grounding (real grounding) and working grounding (floating ground)47. Types of ground in the single-chip microcomputer: digital ground, analog ground, power ground (large current, thick ground wire), signal ground, AC ground, shield ground48.One point grounding: low frequency circuit (below 1MHZ)Multi-point grounding: high frequency circuit (above 10MHZ)49. The AC ground and signal ground cannot be shared. Digital ground and analog ground should be separated and connected at one point.50.Vibration circuit: Mica, high-frequency ceramic capacitors can be selected;DC blocking: paper, polyester, mica, electrolytic, ceramic and other capacitors can be selected;Filtering: Electrolytic capacitors can be used;Bypass: polyester, paper, ceramic, electrolytic and other capacitors can be used51. Diode application circuitLimiting circuit --- It is composed of the unidirectional conductivity of the diode and the basically constant voltage at both ends after it is turned on. It can limit the signal to change in a certain range, and is divided into single-limiting and double-limiting circuits. This circuit is mostly used in signal processing circuits.Clamping circuit --- Clamp the output voltage to a certain value.Switching circuit---Using the unidirectional conductivity of a diode to make and break the circuit, which is widely used in digital circuits.Rectifier circuit---Using the unidirectional conductivity of diodes to convert AC signals into DC signals, it is widely used in DC stabilized power supplies.Low-voltage voltage stabilizing circuit---Using the characteristic that the voltage at both ends of the diode is basically unchanged after the diode is turned on, several diodes are connected in series to obtain an output voltage below 3V52. The high frequency bypass capacitor is generally relatively small, and is generally 0.1u, 0.01u, etc. according to the resonance frequency. The decoupling capacitor is generally larger, 10uF or greater53. Summary of pull-up resistors:When the TTL circuit drives the CMOS circuit, if the high level output by the TTL circuit is lower than the lowest high level of the CMOS circuit (usually 3.5V), a pull-up resistor needs to be connected to the output terminal of the TTL. This can achieve the purpose of increasing the value of the output high level.The OC gate circuit must be added with a pull-up resistor before it can be used.To increase the drive capability of the output pins, pull-up resistors are often used on some single-chip microcomputer pins.On the COMS chip, in order to prevent damage caused by static electricity, the unused pins cannot be left floating. Generally, a pull-up resistor is connected to reduce the input impedance and provide a leakage path.Add pull-up resistors to the pins of the chip to increase the output level, thereby increasing the noise margin of the chip's input signal and enhancing the anti-interference ability.Improve the anti-electromagnetic interference capability of the bus. If the pin is left floating, it is easier to accept external electromagnetic interference.In the long-line transmission, the resistance mismatch can easily cause the reflected wave interference, and the pull-down resistance is the resistance matching, which effectively suppresses the reflected wave interference.It should be large enough to save power consumption and the current sink capability of the chip; the resistance is large and the current is small.It should be small enough to ensure enough drive current; the resistance is small, the current is large.54. The pull-up is to clamp the uncertain signal at a high level through a resistor.55. Bypass capacitor: Generate an AC shunt to eliminate unnecessary energy that enters the susceptible area. Decoupling capacitor: Provide a local DC power supply to the active device to reduce the propagation of switching noise on the board and guide the noise to the ground (its value is about 1/100 to 1/1000 of the bypass capacitor

Overview of 28BYJ-4828BYJ-48 Pinout28BYJ-48 Pinout Description28BYJ-48 DimensionsVideo related to 28BYJ-48 Stepper Motor28BYJ-48 SpecificationApplications for the 28-BYJ48 Stepper MotorHow to use a stepper motor 28BYJ-4828BYJ-48 Applications28BYJ-48 DatasheetHow to use a ULN2004 Driver Board and Arduino to control a 28BYJ-48 stepper motor28BYJ-48 FAQ Overview of 28BYJ-48One of the most widely used stepper motors is the 28-BYJ48 model. Your DVD drives, motion cameras, and many other related gadgets all use this or comparable motors. Each of the motor's four unipolar coils has a rating of +5V, making it reasonably simple to control with even the most basic microcontrollers. 28BYJ-48 Pinout28BYJ-48 Pinout 28BYJ-48 Pinout DescriptionNo:Pin NameWire ColorDescription1Coil 1OrangeThis Motor has a total of four coils. One end of all the coils are connect to +5V (red) wire and the other end of each coil is pulled out as wire colors Orange, Pink, Yellow and Blue respectively。2Coil 2Pink 3Coil 3Yellow 4Coil 4Blue 5+5VRedWe should supply +5V to this wire, this voltage will appear across the coil that is grounded. 28BYJ-48 Dimensions28BYJ-48 Dimensions Video related to 28BYJ-48 Stepper MotorVideo Description: I'll demonstrate how to use a 28BYJ-48 stepper motor with a ULN2003 driver in this brief Arduino tutorial. As this is a brief Arduino tutorial, we will concentrate on the key concepts you need to understand to get it functioning in five minutes. 28BYJ-48 SpecificationRated voltage: 5VDCNumber of Phase 4Speed Variation Ratio 1/64Stride Angle 5.625° /64Frequency 100HzDC resistance 50Ω±7%(25℃)Idle In-traction Frequency > 600HzIdle Out-traction Frequency > 1000HzIn-traction Torque >34.3mN.m(120Hz)Self-positioning Torque >34.3mN.mFriction torque 600-1200 gf.cmPull in torque 300 gf.cmInsulated resistance >10MΩ(500V)Insulated electricity power 600VAC/1mA/1sRise in Temperature <40K(120Hz)Noise <35dB(120Hz,No load,10cm)Model 28BYJ-48 – 5V Applications for the 28-BYJ48 Stepper MotorThese motors are frequently employed in motion cameras, DVD drives, and other devices of a such nature. Each of the motor's four unipolar coils has a rating of +5V, making it reasonably simple to control with even the most basic microcontrollers. These motors have a stride angle of 5.625°/64, which indicates that it will take 64 steps to complete one rotation, covering 5.625° in each step, resulting in a high level of control. The Nema17 motors should be taken into consideration for applications requiring high torque as these motors can only operate on 5V. So if you are looking for a compact easy to use stepper motor with decent torque then this motor is the right choice for you. How to use a stepper motor 28BYJ-48Due to the high current consumption of these stepper motors, a driver IC like the ULN2003 is essential. Look at the coil diagram below to learn how to rotate this motor.28BYJ-48 coil diagramAs we can see, the motor has four coils. The Red end of each coil is connected to +5V, and the Orange, Pink, Yellow, and Blue ends are pulled out as wires. A steady +5V supply is always applied to the Red wire, and this +5V will only activate the coil if the other end of the coil is grounded. Only if the coils are activated (grounded) in a logical order can a stepper motor be made to rotate. A digital circuit can be created or a microcontroller can be used to program this logical sequence. The table below illustrates the order in which each coil should be triggered. Here “1” represent the coil is held at +5V, since both the ends of coil is at +5V (red and other end) the coil will not be energised. Similarly “0” represents the coil is held to ground, now one end will be +5V and the other one is grounded so the coil will be energised. 28BYJ-48 ApplicationsCNC machinesPrecise control machinesSecurity camerasDVD PlayersCar side mirror tilt 28BYJ-48 Datasheet28BYJ-48 Datasheet How to use a ULN2004 Driver Board and Arduino to control a 28BYJ-48 stepper motorOverview of ULN2003 Driver BoardOne of the most popular motor driver ICs, the ULN2003, contains an array of seven Darlington transistor pairs, each of which can drive loads up to 500mA and 50V. The output current of the first transistor is amplified by the second transistor in a pair of transistors known as a Darlington pair.To use the Arduino to drive the stepper motor, you must have the ULN2003. Also, they are inexpensively available and simple to find. Instead of breadboarding the IC itself, it is preferable to grab one of these. As shown in the diagram below, a ULN2003 driver board consists of a ULN2003 soldered onto a board, together with resistors, capacitors, and other bits and bobs that help create the circuit that takes the pulse signals from the controller and converts them into stepper motor motion. Schematic of the pin arrangement Connecting the ULN2003 driver board to the 28BYJ-48 stepper motorThe ULN2003 driver board can accept the 5-pin connector that often comes with the 28BYJ-48 stepper motor. ULN2003 driver board to Arduino connectionAttach the digital pins 8, 9, and 11 of the Arduino to the ULN2003 drivers lN1, lN2, lN3, and lN4. Two pins on the driver board, GND and VCC, are used to connect to the power source. The GND pin on the ULN2003 driver board must be wired to the Arduino's GND pin. Similar to this, the 5V pin on the Arduino should be linked to the VCC pin on the driver board.a 28BYJ-48 stepper motor coupled to an Arduino and a ULN2003 driver board 28BYJ-48 FAQWhat is 28BYJ-48 used for?In order to manage levels precisely, stepper motors are employed. A widely utilized stepper motor that can be used in a variety of applications requiring precision control is the 28BYJ motor. The standard calls for a 5V working voltage and a 5.625 degree step angle. What is the full step code for 28BYJ-48?The 28BYJ-48 unipolar stepper motor's step sequence is IN1, IN3, IN2, and IN4. By making an instance of the stepper library myStepper with the pin sequence 8, 10, 9, 11, we can utilize this knowledge to operate the motor. If you don't do it correctly, the motor won't operate as it should. What is the benefit of a stepper motor?In general, stepper motors provide precise positioning, great speed control, and repeatable movement. Since the motor has no contact brushes, stepper motors are also very dependable. This increases the motor's operational lifespan and minimizes mechanical failure. How much torque does a 28BYJ-48 stepper motor have?The 28BYJ-48 can produce 300g.cm of torque when half stepped and 380g.cm when fully stepped, according to study by Jan Adriaensen. After the Bipolar mod, you can expect the motor to produce 800g.cm of torque, which is about 3x more efficient! What type of stepper is 28BYJ-48?The 28BYJ-48 is a small stepper motor suitable for a large range of applications.