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Every time you want to create a printed circuit board (PCB), you need to design holes, pads, and traces for your circuit. Then you send this design to a manufacturer or etch it yourself. What if you want to create a circuit board by yourself but it sounds hard? Don't worry, there are many free and affordable tools available that will help you do this. There are just a few steps you need to go through, and anyone can do it – even if you have no prior experience.I What is a PCB?According to Wikipedia, a printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads, and other features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Components (e.g., capacitors, resistors, or active devices) are generally soldered onto the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate, and modern designs can include multiple layers (from single-layer to 50+ layers for complex applications).Printed circuit boardWould you like to make your own smart device? Or IoT controller? Or robot? Or drone? Well, then you would want to make a printed circuit board. PCBs are the foundation of virtually all modern electronics!A printed circuit board is typically made from FR-4 (Flame Retardant 4), a composite material made of woven fiberglass cloth with an epoxy resin binder that is flame resistant. While green is the traditional and most common color due to the green solder mask, PCBs now come in various colors including blue, red, black, white, yellow, and even matte black for aesthetic purposes. The solder mask protects the copper traces from oxidation and prevents solder bridges during assembly.On the board, there are components. Initially, the PCB is bare, but you solder the components onto the board following your design. Modern PCBs can use through-hole technology (THT) or surface-mount technology (SMT), with SMT being more common in contemporary designs due to its compact size and automated assembly capabilities.II How to Make a Printed Circuit Board?To make a printed circuit board you need to:1. Design schematics2. Create the PCB layout3. Generate manufacturing files (Gerber files)4. Get the board manufactured and assembled2.1 Design SchematicsThe first and most important step in PCB design is to start with your schematics. This is the blueprint of your circuit that shows how all components connect electrically.Before you start drawing traces and placing components, you need to know what circuit you want to build. You need to find or design schematics for your circuit and choose appropriate PCB design software. Popular options in 2025 include:KiCad - Free, open-source, and very powerfulEasyEDA - Free, web-based with integrated manufacturingAltium Designer - Professional-grade (paid)Eagle (Autodesk) - Popular hobbyist choice with free tierFusion 360 Electronics - Integrated with 3D CAD (paid)CircuitMaker - Free community-driven platform2.2 Create the PCB LayoutStart by drawing your schematic diagram into the software you have chosen. You need to define the connections (nets) between different components.This process involves placing component symbols and connecting them with wires that represent electrical connections. Modern PCB software will check for electrical rule violations (ERC - Electrical Rule Check) to catch errors early.Schematic design exampleNext, you transfer your schematic into a physical PCB layout. This involves:Component placement - Arranging components efficiently on the boardRouting traces - Drawing copper connections between padsPower and ground planes - Creating solid copper areas for power distributionDesign rule checking (DRC) - Ensuring your design meets manufacturing constraintsDrawing PCBs is both technical and artistic. Take your time and follow PCB design best practices:Keep traces as short as possible, especially for high-frequency signalsMaintain proper trace width for current requirements (use trace width calculators)Provide adequate spacing between traces (typically 6-8 mils minimum)Use ground planes to reduce noise and improve signal integrityConsider thermal management for power componentsPlace decoupling capacitors close to IC power pinsPCB layout exampleWill you put the circuit board in an enclosure? Consider the mechanical constraints: tall components might need specific placement, mounting holes must align with your enclosure, and connectors should be accessible. Print out your board design at 1:1 scale to verify physical fit before manufacturing.2.3 Manufacturing Your PCBWhen you finish your layout, it's time to prepare your design for manufacturing. You'll need to generate Gerber files (the industry standard format) and a drill file. Most PCB software can export these automatically.Home Etching vs. Professional Manufacturing:Home Etching:Pros: Immediate results, good for learning, no minimum order quantityCons: Limited to single or double-layer boards, requires chemicals (ferric chloride or cupric chloride), lower precision, manual drilling required, no solder mask or silkscreen, time-consumingProfessional Manufacturing (Recommended for 2025):Pros: High quality, multi-layer capability, solder mask and silkscreen included, plated through-holes, very affordable (as low as $2-5 for small boards), quick turnaround (2-7 days)Cons: Requires waiting for shipping, minimum order quantities (though often just 5 pieces)Popular PCB Manufacturers in 2025:JLCPCB - Very affordable, fast turnaround, assembly services availablePCBWay - Good quality, competitive pricing, excellent customer serviceOSH Park - USA-based, high quality, purple PCBsALLPCB - Budget-friendly optionEurocircuits - European manufacturer, excellent qualitySeeed Studio - Fusion PCB service, good for prototypesMany manufacturers now offer PCB assembly services (PCBA), where they'll solder the components for you. This is increasingly affordable and saves significant time, especially for SMT components.Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)1. How much does it cost to make your own circuit board?As of 2025, PCB manufacturing costs have decreased significantly. For prototypes, you can get simple PCBs manufactured for as little as $2-5 for 5 pieces (100mm x 100mm or smaller). More complex boards with multiple layers, special materials, or larger sizes will cost more. PCB assembly costs typically range from $0.50 to $5 per component placement, depending on component type and quantity. For a complete assembled board, expect to pay $20-100 for small quantities, with costs decreasing significantly for larger production runs (hundreds or thousands of units).2. How do you design and specify printed circuits?The PCB design process follows these steps:Schematic capture - Create the electrical circuit diagramSimulation - Verify circuit functionality (optional but recommended)Component selection - Choose specific parts with appropriate footprintsBoard setup - Define board dimensions, layers, and design rulesComponent placement - Position components strategicallyRouting - Connect components with copper tracesPower plane design - Create ground and power distribution layersDesign rule check (DRC) - Verify manufacturabilityGenerate manufacturing files - Export Gerber and drill filesCreate BOM - Bill of Materials for component procurementAssembly documentation - Create assembly drawings and pick-and-place files3. What does a printed circuit board do?A printed circuit board serves two primary functions: it provides mechanical support for electronic components and creates electrical connections between them using conductive copper pathways. The PCB eliminates the need for point-to-point wiring, making electronic devices more reliable, compact, and manufacturable at scale. Modern PCBs also provide electromagnetic shielding, heat dissipation, and can integrate additional features like impedance-controlled traces for high-speed signals, embedded components, and flexible or rigid-flex sections.4. What is a printed circuit board called?Printed circuit boards are known by several names:PCB - Most common abbreviationPrinted Wiring Board (PWB) - Emphasizes the wiring aspectPrinted Circuit Assembly (PCA) - When components are already mountedPrinted Circuit Board Assembly (PCBA) - Fully assembled boardCircuit Board - General termThe term "printed" refers to the manufacturing process where the circuit pattern is printed onto the board, though modern manufacturing uses photolithography rather than literal printing.5. What is the difference between PCB and PWB?The terms PCB (Printed Circuit Board) and PWB (Printed Wiring Board) are often used interchangeably, but there's a subtle distinction:PWB typically refers to the bare board with only copper traces, pads, and holes - no components mountedPCB can refer to either the bare board or the assembled board with componentsPCBA or PCA specifically refers to the assembled board with all components solderedIn practice, most people use "PCB" to refer to both bare and assembled boards, with context determining the meaning.6. What is a printed circuit board made of?PCBs consist of several layers:Substrate - Usually FR-4 (fiberglass-reinforced epoxy), but can be FR-1, FR-2, CEM-1, CEM-3, polyimide (for flexible PCBs), aluminum (for LED boards), or Rogers material (for high-frequency applications)Copper layers - Typically 1 oz/ft² (35 μm) or 2 oz/ft² (70 μm) thickness, laminated to the substrateSolder mask - Protective polymer layer (usually green, but available in other colors) that prevents solder bridges and protects copper from oxidationSilkscreen - White (or other color) ink layer showing component designators, logos, and other markingsSurface finish - Protects exposed copper pads; options include HASL (Hot Air Solder Leveling), ENIG (Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold), OSP (Organic Solderability Preservative), or immersion silver/tin7. What does PCB stand for?PCB stands for Printed Circuit Board. It's the foundation of modern electronics, providing both mechanical support and electrical connections for electronic components. PCBs replaced earlier point-to-point wiring and wire-wrap construction methods, enabling the mass production of reliable, compact electronic devices. The "printed" aspect refers to the manufacturing process where circuit patterns are created using photolithographic techniques, similar to how photographs are developed.8. Why are PCBs green?PCBs are traditionally green due to the color of the solder mask - a protective coating applied over the copper traces. The green color became standard for several reasons:Historical - Early solder mask materials naturally produced a green colorVisibility - Green provides good contrast for inspection, making it easier to see traces and identify defectsEye strain - Green is easier on the eyes during prolonged inspection and assembly workCost - Green solder mask is the most common and therefore least expensiveHowever, modern PCBs come in many colors: blue, red, black, white, yellow, purple, and even matte black. Color choice is now often aesthetic, though some colors (like black) can make inspection more difficult. High-end products often use black PCBs for a premium appearance, while purple has become popular in the maker community.9. How do you choose a PCB material?PCB material selection depends on your application requirements:By Application Type:Standard/General Purpose - FR-4 (most common, good for frequencies up to 1-2 GHz)High Frequency/High Speed (>2 GHz) - Rogers RO4003C, RO4350B, or Isola materials with controlled dielectric constantFlexible Circuits - Polyimide (Kapton) or polyesterRigid-Flex - Combination of FR-4 and polyimideLED/High Power - Aluminum or copper core for better heat dissipation (Metal Core PCB - MCPCB)High Temperature - Polyimide or high-Tg FR-4 (Tg > 170°C)Low Cost - FR-1, FR-2, or CEM-1 (phenolic paper-based)Key Material Properties to Consider:Dielectric constant (Dk) - Affects signal speed and impedanceLoss tangent (Df) - Signal loss at high frequenciesGlass transition temperature (Tg) - Maximum operating temperatureThermal conductivity - Heat dissipation capabilityCoefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) - Dimensional stability with temperature changesMoisture absorption - Affects reliability in humid environments10. Why do we use PCB instead of breadboard circuits?While breadboards are excellent for prototyping, PCBs offer significant advantages for final products:Advantages of PCBs over Breadboards:Reliability - Permanent solder connections vs. friction contacts that can loosenDurability - Resistant to vibration, shock, and environmental factorsCompactness - Much smaller footprint, especially with SMT componentsPerformance - Lower parasitic capacitance and inductance, better for high-frequency circuitsCurrent capacity - Wider traces can handle more current safelyReproducibility - Identical boards can be manufactured consistentlyProfessional appearance - Clean, polished look for commercial productsCost-effective at scale - Very cheap per unit in production quantitiesHeat management - Can integrate heat sinks, thermal vias, and metal coresEMI/EMC compliance - Better electromagnetic compatibility through proper grounding and shieldingWhen to Use Each:Breadboard - Initial prototyping, learning, testing concepts, temporary circuitsPCB - Final products, permanent installations, high-frequency circuits, production quantities, professional projectsConclusionCreating your own PCB has never been more accessible. With free or affordable design software, online tutorials, and inexpensive manufacturing services, anyone can bring their electronic projects to life. Whether you're a hobbyist building your first LED blinker or an engineer developing a complex IoT device, the PCB design and manufacturing process follows the same fundamental steps.Start with simple projects to learn the basics, and gradually tackle more complex designs as your skills improve. The maker community is vibrant and supportive, with countless resources, forums, and tutorials available online. Don't be intimidated - your first PCB might not be perfect, but each project will teach you valuable lessons.Remember: every expert PCB designer started exactly where you are now. The key is to start designing, learn from mistakes, and keep improving. Happy designing!

Before I share it ,I would like to warn that: Fireworks are illegal in many countries. Before you go lighting off fireworks, check for any local restrictions. Stay safe!There are many articles about remote control lgnition system if you google it. However,I would like to share one but it has some differences between them cause the circuit is combined with my ideas and my friend who is an engineer. Let's see the the complete project details that allow you to ignite firecrackers from a safe distance! This circuit comprises three equally important key parts: an electronic igniter,an RF transmitter and RF receiver . Electronic IgniterThe “red-hot” part of the project is an electromagnetic relay controlled heating wire/fuse. The circuit diagram of the electronic igniter shown following is straightforward and self-explanatory. Here, galvanically isolated electromagnetic relay driver circuitry is used to control the heating element/fuse (1.5 in. of 40AWG Nichrome80 wire) from the output of the RF receiver. Because the RF remote control has four independent channels (pins 10–13 of HT12D IC in the receiver), you can replicate this electronic igniter circuitry to build multiple (four) heating lines. However, as 1.5 in. of 40AWG Nichrome wire draws current close to 1.5 A, without a healthy 12-V battery, the electronic igniter probably couldn’t ignite a firework on its output channels.   RF Transmitter and Receiver A transmitter (or radio transmitter) is an electronic device which produces radio waves with the help of an antenna. A transmitter generates a radio frequency current applied to the antenna, which in turn radiates radio waves.There are several different kinds of transmitter ICs. At Future Electronics we stock many of the most common types categorized by data rate, supply current, supply voltage, frequency range, packaging type and output power. Well,An RF module (radio frequency module) is a (usually) small electronic device used to transmit and/or receive radio signals between two devices. In an embedded system it is often desirable to communicate with another device wirelessly. ... RF communications incorporate a transmitter and a receiver. The RF transmitter consists of a 434-MHz license-exempt radio transmitter module and an encoder chip HT12E, while the RF receiver consists of a 434-MHz radio receiver module and a decoder chip HT12D. In case you are facing difficulties in getting this specific item, you can build your own circuitry (on perfboards) by following the open-hardware schematic (shown below) rendered by the eBay seller (B.M. Embedded Solutions, New Delhi, India).     TestAfter I made one,I test it with a  9-V PP3-type battery as the power source of the radio transmitter and a 12-V/2-A lab power supply as the power source for the radio receiver and electronic igniter. With the limited free space there, I didn’t want to risk being responsible for a fire that burned my lab. So I just fired only a couple of homemade fuses as the proof-of-concept. Picture is as following: 

Warm hints: The word in this article is about 2000 and  reading time is about 10 minutes.SummaryIn ten years ago,the average selling price of industrial robots is about 500 thousand;however, the price is now four large family robot 15-20 million,Eft, and other domestic price slightly lower than the eston robot four family, economic type of pure domestic robot (terminal sales price of about 80 thousand. It is estimated that in the future, the average price of industrial robots will be reduced to less than 50 thousand with the localization of the spare parts and other parts.  CoreIndustrial RobotsCategoryRobotKeywordsindustrial robots;cloud service robotContentFuture market prediction about industrial robots in China Catalogs CatalogsI. The Statistics of Industrial robots Sales in recent yearsII.One of the development trends of industrial robots: more flexibleIII.The two development trend of industrial robots: low cost economy OntologyIV.Prediction about Industrial Robot IntroductionBefore we read the artcle,let's see a video about "MIT cheetah robot lands the running jump".In a leap for robotic development, the MIT researchers who built a robotic cheetah have now trained it to see and jump over hurdles as it runs — making this the first four-legged robot to run and jump over obstacles autonomously.  I. The Statistics of Industrial robots Sales in recent yearsWe know that science and technology are constantly growing after see the above video. According to IFE statistics,the global industrial robot sales exceeded $13 billion 200 million (plus integration part, system on the industrial robot market is about $50 billion) in 2016,with the major economies of the global industrial automation,robot using density increase. What’s more, IFR predicted that the world robot sales were 34.7, 37.8, 43.5 and 522 thousand respectively when in 2017-2020 years,and CAGR reached 15.4% in the next 4 years.Prediction of the sales of industrial robots in the global marketAccording to statistics, in 2016, domestic industrial robot sales hit a new high, reaching 87 thousand units, and by December 2017, China's industrial robot output reached 131 thousand units (set), an increase of 51% over the same period, and sales volume is expected to continue to grow this year. According to the prediction of IFR, 2018-2020 years of domestic robot sales were 16, 19.5, 238 thousand, 22% to 3 years in the future CAGR.Prediction of the sales of industrial robots in the global market In 2017, the domestic industrial robot market rapid growth for two reasons, one is the demand of the robot driven by 3C's apple, the other is the general manufacturing robots used in large-scale attempt, many general manufacturing enterprises, such as the winery, an order in more than 100. The difficulty of recruiting workers and the high cost of recruiting workers are becoming more and more common, which makes the demand for robots increase.At present, the domestic robots are mainly used in the general manufacturing industry other than cars and 3C. This year, not only foreign brands, but also domestic industrial robots.Domestic industrial robot sales structure in 2016 and over the yearsAccording to the National Bureau of statistics, China has 50 million manufacturing workers in each industrial robot instead of 2-3 workers, the potential stock market will reach 1800-2500 million units, taking into account a lot of jobs cannot substitute robots, may the actual market is not so big. We discussed with industry experts, five years can be seen in the domestic market sales reached 50-60 million units.Prediction of the sales of industrial robots in the global market AnalysisII.One of the development trends of industrial robots: more flexibleIn order to increase the use of industrial robots, the robot is more flexible. DFKI (German Research Center for artificial intelligence, is Germany's top intelligence research institutions, is currently the world's largest non-profit artificial intelligence research institutions, its shareholders include Google, Intel, Microsoft, BMW, SAP, Airbus, the global top ten enterprises of science and Technology) developed intelligent assembly robot, can through the abstract memory system for assembly, adaptive grasping and intelligent products specifically, is in the head mounted stereoscopic camera, camera mounted near the object in the arm; at the same time, using the left internal antenna reads from the inside of the product size, weight and hot.DFKI Grasping and assembling robotInter-generational evolution of industrial robots: robots are undergoing a shift from "machine" to human. We can divide the robot into three generations, the first generation of traditional industrial robots, which have not changed significantly for nearly 50 years. The second generation is a "feeling" robot. They have a certain sense of perception in the outside world, with visual, tactile and auditory functions. Such as a cooperative robot, a arc welding robot that automatically tracks the weld according to the laser feedback. The third generation planning based on artificial intelligence technology, robot control, according to their perception of information, independent thinking, recognition and reasoning, and make judgments and decisions, without human intervention automatically, become the main production system, can even replace machine and other machine tools, such as cloud service robot.The robot is undergoing a change from "machine" to "man"The second generation of robot representatives: UR cooperative robot. At present, cooperative robots occupy a part of the market with their safety, low cost, easy to use and low cost of transformation, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises which are mainly small batch and customized. However, in the long run, human-computer cooperation is the direction, and the potential of the cooperative robot market is great.UR5 apply in Volkswagen automobile production lineBecause of the great prospect of the cooperative robot, the robot enterprises both at home and abroad have the product development and sale, and have obtained the better market response. Although the domestic collaboration robot started late, but in the past two years, many products appeared in the development. In China, especially for the electronics industry, the domestic cooperative robot has a promising commercial prospect.Typical enterprise and product of cooperative robotThe third generation of robot - cloud service robot. Cloud service robots, integrating the latest information technology, will produce more dramatic changes in the impact of artificial intelligence and industrial robots.In 2015, the domestic industrial robot AIFUTE leading enterprises began the layout of the next generation of robot technology, and the Silicon Valley in the United States set up R & D center. A preliminary cloud robot platform product will be formed in 2018.The concept of cloud evert robotIII.The two development trend of industrial robots: low cost economy OntologyThe medium and small businesses can receive the longest payback period of two years, preferably one year, so the industrial robots should be popularized in China. In the long run, the price should be controlled at least 100 thousand. ConclusionIV.Prediction about Industrial RobotIndustrial robot in 10 years ago, the average selling price of about 500 thousand, the price is now four large family robot 15-20 million, Eft, and other domestic price slightly lower than the eston robot four family, economic type of pure domestic robot (terminal sales price of about 80 thousand. It is estimated that in the future, the average price of industrial robots will be reduced to less than 50 thousand with the localization of the spare parts and other parts.  Book Recommendation House of Robots: Robot Revolution Hardcover – January 16, 2017After a few early glitches in their relationship, Sammy and his "bro-bot" E are now fast friends. In fact, E is such a valued member of the family that the other electronic occupants of the House of Robots are feeling sorely unappreciated. And when Sammy's inventor mom becomes distracted by a top-secret project, the robots soon begin to fall into disrepair.Cue a robot revolt, with the droids wreaking harmless havoc in the house! Armed with pranks like glue in the shampoo bottles and flying toast missiles, the robots demand to be cared for. It's up to Sammy and his disabled sister Maddie to keep the peace until his mom reveals her secret project...and why it was worth the wait.--James Patterson  (Author),‎ Juliana Neufeld (Illustrator),‎ Chris Grabenstein (Contributor) Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future Paperback – July 12, 2016What are the jobs of the future? How many will there be? And who will have them? As technology continues to accelerate and machines begin taking care of themselves, fewer people will be necessary. Artificial intelligence is already well on its way to making "good jobs" obsolete: many paralegals, journalists, office workers, and even computer programmers are poised to be replaced by robots and smart software. As progress continues, blue and white collar jobs alike will evaporate, squeezing working- and middle-class families ever further. At the same time, households are under assault from exploding costs, especially from the two major industries-education and health care-that, so far, have not been transformed by information technology. The result could well be massive unemployment and inequality as well as the implosion of the consumer economy itself.The past solutions to technological disruption, especially more training and education, aren't going to work. We must decide, now, whether the future will see boad-based prosperity or catastrophic levels of inequality and economic insecurity. Rise of the Robots is essential reading to understand what accelerating technology means for our economic prospects-not to mention those of our children-as well as for society as a whole.--Martin Ford  (Author)Robot-Proof: Higher Education in the Age of Artificial Intelligence (MIT Press) Hardcover – August 25, 2017How to educate the next generation of college students to invent, to create, and to discover -- filling needs that even the most sophisticated robot cannot.Driverless cars are hitting the road, powered by artificial intelligence. Robots can climb stairs, open doors, win Jeopardy, analyze stocks, work in factories, find parking spaces, advise oncologists. In the past, automation was considered a threat to low-skilled labor. Now, many high-skilled functions, including interpreting medical images, doing legal research, and analyzing data, are within the skill sets of machines. How can higher education prepare students for their professional lives when professions themselves are disappearing? In Robot-Proof, Northeastern University president Joseph Aoun proposes a way to educate the next generation of college students to invent, to create, and to discover -- to fill needs in society that even the most sophisticated artificial intelligence agent cannot.A "robot-proof" education, Aoun argues, is not concerned solely with topping up students' minds with high-octane facts. Rather, it calibrates them with a creative mindset and the mental elasticity to invent, discover, or create something valuable to society -- a scientific proof, a hip-hop recording, a web comic, a cure for cancer. Aoun lays out the framework for a new discipline, humanics, which builds on our innate strengths and prepares students to compete in a labor market in which smart machines work alongside human professionals. The new literacies of Aoun's humanics are data literacy, technological literacy, and human literacy. Students will need data literacy to manage the flow of big data, and technological literacy to know how their machines work, but human literacy -- the humanities, communication, and design -- to function as a human being. Life-long learning opportunities will support their ability to adapt to change.The only certainty about the future is change. Higher education based on the new literacies of humanics can equip students for living and working through change.--Joseph E. Aoun (Author)  Relevant information about "The Future Market of Industrial Robots in China will Be Far Beyond Imagination"About the article "The Future Market of Industrial Robots in China will Be Far Beyond Imagination", If you have better ideas, don't hesitate to  write your thoughts in the following comment area. You also can find more articles about electronic semiconductor through Google search engine, or refer to the following related articles. Living Insect-Machine Hybrid Robot--Swarming Search and RescueMake Robots Walk NaturallyEngineers from MIT Developed A Tiny, Affordable Robotic Device That Can Detect Water LeakThree Fingers Robotic Hand with Specialized Sensors can Estimate Size and Shape of ObjectsA New, Electronic Skin Microsystem Enables People Tracks Their Heart Rate And Other Health Index

Christmas is approaching. Considering Your Cheat Sheet to Shopping the Electronic Product This Biggest Holiday Season.What's on your Christmas shopping-list?                                                   1. Half shipping fee when order value between 500~1000USD.2. Free shipping when order value between 1001USD~5000USD.（Weight≦3KG）3. 5% discount on unit price when order value≧5000USD.                                             4. Every order will be shipped with a special gift during this period.Kynix has a wide and unobstructed channel for supply source, and reserves a large number of electronic components inventory including all categories of products as: optical devices, embedded systems, semiconductors, circuit protection components, passive components, connectors, sensors, etc. The products are widely used in many fields of power, network , communication, industrial control, automotive, military, instrument&meter, financial equipment, industrial control, computer interface devices, consumer electronics and others. Our distribution brands include SAMSUNG, SKHYNIX, MICRON, BROADCOM, FREESCALE,TI, ATMEL, AD, ALTERA, XILINX, etc.Kynix's customer groups include:  aerospace service providers; medical devices manufacturers; research institutions, telecommunications equipment manufacturers; automotive electronics manufacturers; nuclear power, industrial equipment manufacturers; in addition to serving for many large, medium and small electronic components agents and distributors. Kynix has gradually built up a number of channels of supply and cooperation relationships to , provide customers with excellent products, chain management services and full technical support to meet our customers' product development and production. We make unremitting efforts to become your best partner.With the accurate quotation, excellent credit, reasonable price, reliable quality, fast delivery, authentic service, we have won the praise of majority of customers. So giving a chance to us to find the big surprise in this holiday moment.May You Have A Happy Christmas Day In KYNIX!

This article is mainly to talk about the latest development of electric vehicle power management technology. Electric vehicle systems consist of electric motors, power converters, and energy storage devices such as lithium-ion batteries. This new architecture system must be optimized to maximize system efficiency, enabling the car to achieve maximum travel distance on a single charge. These developments in electronic technology have created conditions for reducing the emissions from transportation. Save our planet and keep the earth away from pollution! This is a consensus voice among scientists and people of insight around the world to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Vehicles powered by fossil fuel combustion engines are the culprit. Although there are many alternative technologies to promote car travel, the only feasible solution at present is: electric cars.   Catalog   I Electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) II Silicon carbide (SiC) power supply for electric vehicles III GaN power supply for electric vehicles IV Utilizing hybrid vehicle transmission system to reduce greenhouse gas emissions V Automotive inverter VI Dual-voltage battery system VII Delphi integration and wiring VIII Electric wheel drive system IX Conclusion FAQ I Electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) An electric vehicle (EV) runs on a battery, as does a hybrid electrical vehicle (HEV), except that it also uses a fossil-fueled internal combustion engine as an aid. The technologies that power these cars need to be successful and have a bright future. Energy efficiency is the key. Therefore, intelligent power management mechanisms are needed to maximize the efficiency of converting battery energy into wheel mechanical driving force, thereby increasing single-charge charging. Travel distance, while not increasing carbon emissions, is ideally a significant reduction in carbon emissions. This video describe the operational characteristics of a hybrid vehicle drive train: Introduction to hybrid-electric vehicle energy monitor   II Silicon carbide (SiC) power supply for electric vehicles The weight, size, and cost of an electric vehicle, and the distance travelled by a single charge, are directly related to the efficiency of the power conversion system. SiC power components are ideal for working in the high temperature environments that are common in automobiles. Let us take a closer look at the role of silicon carbide power components in improving system efficiency. Lighter weight means longer mileage. A typical way to reduce the weight, cost, and size of a power conversion system is to increase the switching frequency of the switching regulator. We know that the size and weight of active components such as inductors, capacitors, and transformers can be reduced when operating at higher frequencies. Embrace the silicon carbide (SiC) solution. Although silicon (Si) power devices can also operate at high frequencies, the advantage of SiC is the ability to handle much higher voltages than Si. SiC is a wide band gap semiconductor device, and a wider band gap means a higher critical electric field (a critical electric field is a blocking voltage in an off state). The high voltage capability of wide bandgap (WBG) SiC devices allows them to have lower on-resistance, resulting in faster switching speeds and unipolar operation. Part of the principle is that their carrier frequencies need to be accelerated to much higher speeds (more High kinetic energy) to overcome wider band gaps. Although gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium nitride (GaN) also have high critical electric fields and are also improved devices for high-power solutions, SiC has other advantages, such as higher maximum operating temperatures. High Debye temperature, high thermal conductivity (in polycrystalline SiC), rapid switching and high resistivity saturation with low resistivity in the electric field, facilitated generation of lower silica (SiO2) The production cost, as well as the higher threshold energy brings more robust radiation resistance. SiC devices have many key applications in electric vehicles. The existing electric traction drive can convert 85% of the electrical energy into mechanical energy to drive the wheels. This efficiency is quite high, but SiC can also help improve efficiency. The power converter can benefit from improved efficiency because it transfers battery power to the engine and can be used in the battery charger circuit and any needed auxiliary power (Figure 1). Figure 1. SiC power devices have many uses in electric vehicles The SiC power supply that converts 750V to 27V for low-voltage electric vehicles is a good example of using SiC power devices to improve the efficiency of electric vehicles. This architecture increases efficiency from 88% to a staggering 96%, reduces size and weight by 25%, and does not require fans to cool excess heat compared to Si solutions. Table 1 shows some important applications of SiC power devices for electric vehicles. The reference information mentioned in the table can be found by referring to Reference 1 at the end of this article. Table 1. Some SiC applications in the electric vehicle electronics architecture III GaN power supply for electric vehicles Gallium nitride (GaN) also contributed to the improvement of the power supply of electric vehicles. IGBTs widely used in motor drive and DC/DC control have been silicon-based products. These designs typically have switching times on the order of 10kHz to 100kHz, while GaN devices can switch nanoseconds and can easily operate in a 200°C automotive environment. Like SiC, GaN devices can also reduce the size of inductors, capacitors, and transformers in power supply architectures due to their higher switching speeds. They can also reduce the overall size and weight due to the shrinking size of passive components. We will analyze their efficacy based on the chemical composition of electric vehicle batteries, such as lithium-based chemistry and NiMH with high energy density. As described in the previous SiC device section, the efficiency of the power conversion architecture also needs to be improved in order to enable longer distances for a single charge. The switching speed and minimum on-resistance of silicon devices have reached their maximum limit, and GaN seems to be a viable solution that exceeds these limits. Experiments show that if the switching frequency can be increased by 5 times, the inductor and capacitor can be reduced to one-fifth the size. Today's GaN technology can support very high speeds. GaN power devices perform quite well in four key areas: high temperature operation, higher breakdown voltage, low on-resistance, and nanoscale switching speeds for higher operating frequencies. GaN is similar to SiC in terms of these advantages. There are two differences between them: LEDs and RF transistors always use GaN; many silicon manufacturing processes are compatible with GaN processes, which reduces wafer costs and processes compared to the higher substrate costs of SiC. cost. Since the reliability problem was solved as early as 2003, today's technology has achieved the first batch of GaN high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) devices already in production. These are normal conduction devices, so the gate voltage of 0V will become conductive, and any voltage less than 0V will turn the device off. The SiC substrate was used early. Once the Si substrate is perfectly integrated with GaN, the production cost can be significantly reduced. The new cascaded architecture implemented in 2014 changed the ever-changing devices into normally-off devices. Since then, the drive technology has made great progress, the integration is getting higher and higher, and the power inverter has also made significant progress. GaN devices also perform well in battery chargers for electric vehicles, which consist of AC/DC converters plus DC/DC converters. This combination is a power factor controller (PFC) (Figure 2). Figure 2: A typical electric vehicle power architecture With GaN, coupled with higher switching speed GaN HEMTs, smaller passive devices can be realized. At higher frequency conditions, using a smaller inductor can make the ripple current of the power supply architecture lower, improve the power factor, and get a capacitor with a smaller size and lower cost. Lower ripple currents also have less stress on the capacitors, increasing their reliability and lifetime. Over the past few years, the reliability of GaN has been raised to a very high standard, which is the key to the use of GaN in automobiles. IV Utilizing hybrid vehicle transmission system to reduce greenhouse gas emissions At present about 72% of traffic emissions are generated by cars driving on the road. Improving the design of the hybrid powertrain drive system to increase its efficiency is the primary means of reducing emissions. One approach is to increase the efficiency of the DC-link voltage control architecture, which means that first it is necessary to increase the power converter efficiency of the series hybrid electric vehicle drive system. The DC-link is usually connected to three drive systems: a primary power supply consisting of a three-phase rectifier; a secondary power supply consisting of a dual active bridge (DAB) DC/DC converter; and a propulsion load consisting of a three-phase inverter ( Figure 3). They relate to tandem hybrid cars. Figure 3: Block diagram of the drive train of a hybrid vehicle In a design topology where the DC-link and battery voltages are not equal, an intermediate DC/DC converter solution is required. The paper "Voltage Control Methods for Improving Efficiency of Power Circuits in Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles" (Reference 3) describes many methods for studying different architectures and solutions for various DC-link voltage and DC/DC converter control. . The following will discuss the proportional control law that controls the dynamic DC-link voltage to achieve the phase shift between the waveforms of the gate switching of the DAB DC/DC converter bridge. This converter is located between the DC-link and the battery of a series hybrid vehicle drivetrain, as shown in Figure 4. In this case, the controller lowers the power consumption of the DC/DC converter and the entire drive system. Figure 4: Hybrid driveline interconnection diagram in the control schematic In this model, the diesel engine is the main power source of the hybrid vehicle, and the DC battery is the secondary power source. The supervisory control system (SCS) controls the ratio of power provided by the two power sources based on battery state of charge (SOC) and motor load. In fact, in this series hybrid vehicle, the DC-link voltage imposes restraint conditions on the ideal working area of PMSM and PMSG corresponding to the unit modulation index, so that the system can avoid signal distortion and reduce system efficiency. Overshoot state. Keeping the modulation index close to 1 can increase the total efficiency of the power circuit in the drive system, thereby maximizing the efficiency of the inverter and the rectifier, and the switching process is the main factor of its efficiency loss. Therefore, reducing the switching voltage can improve efficiency. This permanent zero pressure switch (PZVS) mechanism that minimizes power loss is best suited for cars with high mixing factors, especially in urban environments. The mixing factor (HF) is the ratio of the installed power from the power source to the total installed power. This mixing factor affects the fuel consumption in hybrid vehicles. V Automotive inverter The main power inverter controls the electric motor in the electric drive system and is an important component in the hybrid/electric vehicle. Power inverters, like engine management systems (EMS) in internal combustion engine cars, determine driving behavior. This inverter is suitable for any motor, such as synchronous, asynchronous or brushless motor, controlled by an integrated electronic PCB board. This PCB is specifically designed by automotive manufacturers to minimize switching losses and maximize thermal efficiency. The other function of the inverter is to capture the energy released by the regenerative brake and feedback to charge the battery. The distance traveled by hybrid/electric vehicles is directly related to the efficiency of the main inverter (Figure 5). Figure 5: Infineon main inverter block diagram in a hybrid/electric vehicle VI Dual-voltage battery system Managing batteries in hybrid and electric vehicles requires high-voltage technology. Dual-voltage systems incorporating 12V and 48V batteries require bi-directional DC/DC conversion, as shown in Figure 6, with the goal of protecting the circuit and supporting architectural functions. Figure 6: Bidirectional DC/DC converters from 48V to 12V In addition, automotive architecture designs typically have a single-phase 3.5kW or 7kW on-board charger module (OBCM) for charging an electric vehicle or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) from the grid. In contrast, electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles can be used as energy sources, and can also be used as energy storage devices in smart grids that integrate renewable energy. Smart grid work takes into account the smart charging and discharging of electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles. This is why OBCM must be a bi-directional DC/DC charger. The best architecture for this design is a boost series of resonant bi-directional topologies, as shown in Figure 7. It operates above the resonant frequency, has a zero-voltage switching function, and has maximum power transfer performance at the minimum switching frequency point. Compared to unidirectional power converters, this technology replaces diode rectifiers with MOSFET rectifiers. This solution also has higher efficiency and wider battery capacity. One of the major drawbacks of this architecture shown in Figure 7 is that the rectifier bridge has large losses when it is turned off. This problem must be addressed in future designs. Figure 7: Designers sometimes use a modulated DAB converter to control simple high-frequency isolation VII Delphi integration and wiring It is amazing that Delphi integrates all of the components discussed in this article and some of the other hybrid electric vehicle power electronics (Figure 8). Figure 8. Delphi achieves high integration in hybrid/electric vehicles It is also important to use suitable internal connectors in hybrid/electric vehicles (Figure 9). Figure 9. The key element of a hybrid/electric car is to minimize the quality     VIII Electric wheel drive system “Design and implementation of electric drive systems for in-vehicle electric vehicle applications” (Reference 8) proposes a hub drive system for hybrid and electric vehicles, and a hub-drive hybrid vehicle that provides computing performance. The SIMULINK model has been successfully developed. Two 14kW DC brushless DC (BLDC) motors are manufactured according to the literature and are installed in the rim of the hybrid vehicle wheels. In addition, two independently driven rear wheels are also mounted on Fiat's Linea. By detecting the angle of the steering wheel, electronic control technology replaces the mechanical differential device. The electric drive control system of the car and the electronic control unit (ECU) communicate via the CAN bus. A successful cascade is achieved between the electrically driven rear wheel and the ICE-driven front axle. Figure 10. A rear-wheel brushless DC motor image This design chose a brushless DC motor with a concentrated coil because it has a very low power-to-weight ratio and high efficiency, and it is easy to control. Figure 11. Exploded view of a direct-drive brushless DC motor in wheel rims and motor-generator units The brushless DC motor power drive consists of an integrated power module (IPM), an 8-bit microcontroller and an electronic control system. Driver software development for IGBT converter control and motor pulse width modulation (PWM) voltage control. The system has optocoupler isolation, current and temperature protection, and the system is also embedded with speed, current and voltage sensors. In summary, this article describes some recent developments in the power management of electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles. In the future, there will certainly be more development results that will be further improved to benefit our planet. IX Conclusion Electric propulsion technology requires the integration of a completely new architecture of the powertrain in the vehicle. This newly added component requires a multidisciplinary and in-depth study of the corresponding system components. Electric vehicle systems consist of electric motors, power converters, and energy storage devices such as lithium-ion batteries. This new architecture system must be optimized to maximize system efficiency, enabling the car to achieve maximum travel distance on a single charge. These developments in electronic technology have created conditions for reducing the emissions from transportation.   FAQ   1. What is energy management system in electric vehicles? Energy management strategies are the algorithms that decide the power split between engine and motor in order to improve the fuel economy and optimize the performance of HEVs. ... A lot of research work has been conducted for energy optimization and the same is extended for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs).   2. What is EV technology? EVs (also known as plug-in electric vehicles) derive all or part of their power from electricity supplied by the electric grid. They include AEVs and PHEVs. AEVs (all-electric vehicles) are powered by one or more electric motors. They receive electricity by plugging into the grid and store it in batteries.   3. What is the biggest challenge with electric vehicles? The major challenge is costs. Battery technology is expensive, and because batteries in electric cars need to be able to hold massive amounts of charge to make the cars practical for most drivers, they have to be built using expensive materials, most of which are tough to procure.   4. Why electric cars are bad for the environment? Nevertheless, at the end of the manufacturing process, electric cars are the ones generating more carbon emissions, according to the Union of Concerned Scientists. Why is this? Because electric cars store energy in large batteries (the larger they are, the bigger their range is) that have high environmental costs.   5. What are the main problems with electric cars? The biggest problem with EVs is range. While a plug-in hybrid can count on gasoline as a backup, EVs can't. An EV like the Tesla Model S can travel nearly 400 miles on a single charge, but not all EVs can make it quite that far. EVs like the Model S tend to be pretty expensive too.   6. What is meant by electric vehicle? An EV is a shortened acronym for an electric vehicle. EVs are vehicles that are either partially or fully powered on electric power. Electric vehicles have low running costs as they have less moving parts for maintaining and also very environmentally friendly as they use little or no fossil fuels (petrol or diesel).   7. How do electric vehicles work? Electric cars function by plugging into a charge point and taking electricity from the grid. They store the electricity in rechargeable batteries that power an electric motor, which turns the wheels. Electric cars accelerate faster than vehicles with traditional fuel engines – so they feel lighter to drive.   8. What are the types of electric vehicles? There are two basic types of EVs: all-electric vehicles (AEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). AEVs include Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs).   9. Do electric cars run on AC or DC? Electric cars can use AC or DC motors: If the motor is a DC motor, then it may run on anything from 96 to 192 volts. Many of the DC motors used in electric cars come from the electric forklift industry.   10. Are there any benefits of owning an electric car? They can reduce emissions and even save you money. Fueling with electricity offers some advantages not available in conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. Because electric motors react quickly, EVs are very responsive and have very good torque.  

Warm hints: The word in this article is about 2800 words and  reading time is about 15 minutes.     Lithium-ion batteries can be said to be the most mature and widely used new energy sources in the world at present, such as portable electronic products like mobile phones and computers, electric vehicles, electric tools, and energy storage projects. Especially the current Chinese government and other countries are investing to support the development of new energy vehicles and power battery industries. Looking ahead, the lithium industry has a long way to go, such as the development of high energy density systems. The problems of further reduction of cost, the resources recovery, and the utilization are in front of us.   This article will mainly explain what is a lithium battery, then introduce the current situation and future development of lithium-ion battery materials.       Catalog I. What is A Lithium Battery? II. How Does the Lithium Battery Work? III. Distinction Between Lithium-ion Battery & Polymer Lithium Battery IV. Types and Characteristics of Material Used in Lithium Batteries V. Application of Lithium Battery VI. Future Development of Lithium Battery FAQ I. What is A Lithium Battery?   "Lithium battery" is a kind of battery that takes lithium metal or lithium alloy as negative electrode material and using a non-aqueous electrolyte solution. In 1912, lithium-metal batteries were first proposed and studied by Gilbert N. Lewis. In the 1970s, M.S. Whittingham proposed and began to study lithium-ion batteries.   Because of the active chemical characteristics of lithium metal, the environmental requirements of the processing, preservation, and use of lithium metal are very high. Therefore, lithium batteries have not been applied for a long time. With the development of science and technology, lithium batteries have become the mainstream now.   Lithium batteries can be roughly divided into two categories: lithium metal batteries and lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries do not contain metallic lithium and are rechargeable. The fifth generation of rechargeable lithium metal batteries was born in 1996. Its safety, specific capacity, self-discharge rate, and the ratio of performance to price are superior to those of lithium-ion batteries, which are now produced by a few companies in only a few countries due to their own high-tech constraints.   Li-ion batteries are secondary battery system in which two different kinds of lithium intercalated compounds that can be inserted and removed as positive and negative electrodes respectively. When charged, lithium-ions are removed from the lattice of cathode materials. After the electrolyte is inserted into the lattice of the anode material, the negative electrode is rich in lithium, and the positive electrode is poor in lithium.   When discharged, the lithium-ion is removed from the lattice of the anode material, and then inserted into the lattice of the positive electrode material after the electrolyte, so that the positive electrode material is extremely rich in lithium while the negative electrode is poor in lithium. In this way, the difference between the potential of the cathode material and the lithium-ion when inserted and removed from the lithium metal is the working voltage of the battery.   Li-ion battery is a new generation of green high-energy battery with excellent performance and has become one of the key points in the development of high-tech.   Li-ion battery has the following characteristics: high voltage, high capacity, low consumption, no memory effect, no pollution, small volume, small internal resistance, less self-discharge, and more cycle times.   Because of the above characteristics, the lithium-ion battery has been applied to many civil and military fields, such as mobile phones, notebooks computers, cameras, digital cameras, and so on.   II. How Does the Lithium Battery Work?   The charging and discharging process of lithium battery is realized by the removal and embedding of lithium-ion in the positive and negative electrode of the battery. The reaction equation of the lithium-ion battery with iron phosphate liquid as an example is as follows:   Charging: Discharging:   The electrode reaction of Li/PEO-LiClO4/Pan polymer lithium-ion battery is as follows:   Positive electrode reaction: Negative electrode reaction： The working schematic diagram of lithium battery: Schematic-of-the-lithium-ion-battery-working-principle   1. The positive electrode structure:  LiMn2O4( lithium manganate ) + Conductive agent (acetylene black) + adhesive(PVDF) + Collector negative ( aluminium foil )electrode   2. The negative electrode structure:  Graphite+ Conductive agent (acetylene black) + adhesive(PVDF) + Collector negative ( copper foil )electrode   3. Charging process: The battery is charged by the power supply, and the electron e on the positive electrode runs from the external circuit to the negative electrode. Positive lithium-ion Li+ "jumps" from the positive electrode to the electrolyte, "climb" through the winding hole in the diaphragm, then "swim" to the negative electrode and combine with the electron.    The reaction on the positive electrode is: LiMn2O4 ==Li1-xMn2O4+Xli++Xe (electron).  The reaction on the negative electrode is:  6C+XLi+Xe==LixC6   4. Discharging process When the battery discharges, the electron e on the negative electrode runs from the external circuit to the positive electrode. Positive lithium-ion Li+ "jumps" from the negative electrode to the electrolyte, "climb" through the winding hole in the diaphragm, then "swim" to the positive electrode and combine with the electron.    The reaction on the positive electrode is: Li1-xMn2O4+xli++xe (electron) ==LiMn2O4 The reaction on the negative electrode is: LixC6 == 6C+xLi+xe III. Distinction Between Lithium-ion Battery & Polymer Lithium Battery   As the following table: Electrolyte for Polymer Lithium Battery PolymerElectrolytePure solid polymer electrolyteGel polymer electrolytePAn, PPY, PA, PPPPEO, PPOPAN,PMMA,PVdF   As the following diagram: Different electrolytes are the main differences between lithium-ion batteries and polymer lithium batteries. Diagram IV. Types and Characteristics of Material Used in Lithium Batteries (This is a tutorial on the Lithium Battery Explorer provides an overview of Li-ion battery technology and the properties that are relevant to battery researchers.)   1.Lithium manganate (LMO) LMO, as a kind of lithium battery material with a long history, has high safety, especially strong resistance to overcharge, which is a prominent advantage.   Because of the good structural stability of lithium manganate, the amount of cathode material does not have to exceed the negative electrode in the design of the electric core.   In this way, the number of active lithium ions in the whole system is small, and after the negative electrode is filled, there will not be too many lithium ions in the positive electrode. Even if overcharge occurs, there will not be a large number of lithium ions deposited in the negative electrode to form crystallization. Therefore, the overcharge resistance of lithium manganate is the best in common materials.   In addition, its material price is low, and the production process requirements are relatively low. It is a relatively early widely used cathode material.   But it also has obvious defects. The elevated temperature property of spinel lithium manganese oxide is poor. The existence of oxygen defect makes the core prone to capacity decay at the high voltage stage, at the same time, the cycle use at high temperature would cause a similar capacity decay. The reason is that the trivalent manganese ion which causes the disproportionation effect. The main way to prevent high-temperature attenuation is to reduce the trivalent manganese.   Lithium manganese, limited by its high-temperature performance, is generally not used in high-power or high-temperature environments, such as high-speed passenger vehicles, plug-in cars, and so on. But for electric buses, local logistics vehicles, and so on, lithium manganese is completely competent.     2. Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) The advantages of lithium iron phosphate are mainly reflected in its safety and cycle life. The main determinants are the olivine structure of lithium iron phosphate, which, on the one hand, leads to the lower ion diffusion capacity of lithium iron phosphate. On the other hand, it also has good high-temperature stability and good cycle performance.   The disadvantages of lithium iron phosphate are also obvious, such as low energy density, poor consistency, and poor low-temperature performance.     a) The low energy density is determined by the chemical properties of the material itself. A lithium iron phosphate macro-molecule can accommodate only one lithium-ion.   b)The consistency, especially poor batch stability, is related to not only the level of production management but also its own chemical properties. Lithium iron phosphate is one of the more difficult materials for the preparation of cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries.   The difficulty of consistency and uniformity in this chemical reaction raises another problem at the same time: The impurity of iron and iron in the lithium iron phosphate material always exists, which brings hidden trouble to the battery.   Lithium iron phosphate battery, because of its high safety, although The energy density part affects its range of use., but it is still the main power lithium battery variety of electric vehicle in our country at present, especially buses involving the safety of a large number of people, the national police enforce the use of lithium iron phosphate batteries.     3.Ternary lithium The ternary lithium cathode material synthesizes the advantages of LiCoO2、LiNiO2 and LiMnO2 and forms a synergistic effect within the same core. It combines three requirements of stability and activity of material structure and lower cost, which is one of the three main cathode materials with the highest energy density. The low-temperature performance is also obviously better than the lithium iron phosphate battery.    The higher the content of Ni in the three elements, the higher the energy density of the core and the lower the safety of the core will be. In practical application, the proportion relation of three kinds of materials in the electric core has been changing with the passage of time. The pursuit of energy density is higher and higher, so the proportion of Ni is higher and higher.   The most mentioned disadvantage of ternary material is safety. During the process of thermal runaway, the side reaction product contains a lot of gas, which greatly improves the risk of accident and the ability to spread.   Secondly, the cycle life of ternary materials is also a bottleneck, which has not reached the level of lithium iron phosphate. Last but not least, due to the special microstructure of ternary materials, it is not suitable for high-pressure compaction operation, thus the popular way to increase the energy density is not applicable to it.   The market share of ternary materials is gradually expanding, mainly driven by the pursuit of vehicle range. To catch up with or even surpass that of fuel vehicles, electric vehicles must have as much power as possible in a limited space.   This makes energy density particularly important. The improvement of the safety performance of the battery itself and the improvement of system monitoring and handling accident capability will also promote the expansion of the lithium ternary battery market.   V. Application of Lithium Battery   1. Lithium Iron Phosphate is the most suitable cathode material for Power Battery   After introducing the Types and characteristics of Lithium batteries above, now we will discuss about the most suitable cathode material for power supply.    Since 1996, when the Japanese NTT first exposed lithium iron phosphate cathode materials of olivine structure, John.B.Goodenough professor at Texas University also reported the characteristics of reversible intercalation and removal of lithium from LiFePO4 in 1997.   Since then, lithium iron phosphate has gradually become one of the low-cost, multi-element, and environmentally friendly cathode materials. Compared with traditional cathode materials, spinel LiMn2O4 of spinel structure and layered LiCoO2, the LiMPO4 of olivine structure is extremely stable.   The bond with oxygen is very strong, it will not explode because of the short circuit, the capacity is up to 170 mAh / g, the raw material is more extensive and the price is lower. Because of the similar structure of LiFePO4 and FePO4, the crystal structure of LiFePO4 has almost no rearrangement after the release/embedding of lithium-ion.   Therefore, LiFePO4 has better cycling performance, lithium-ion can enter and exit freely and can charge and discharge more than 1,000 times. It is also reported that lithium iron phosphate can be modified more than 10,000 times.   According to the following picture: Performance comparison of Lithium batteries with different cathode Materials.   Performance comparison Lithium iron phosphate is the most ideal cathode material at present. In comparison, the biggest problem of LiCoO is that it is easy to explode at a low temperature of 150C, and its cost is high (cobalt price is about 500,000 yuan/ton, and the price of LiCoO containing 60% cobalt will be over 400,000 yuan/ton). Also, it has a short cycle life.   The safety of lithium manganese oxide is much better than that of lithium cobaltate, but the cycle life in a high-temperature environment is even worse than that in a high-temperature environment(500 times).   With the advantages of high discharge power, low cost (about 18.3 million yuan/ton), rapid charging and long cycle life of more than 1000 times, the high stability of high temperature and high heat environment, and the good safety performance, lithium iron phosphate is the most ideal lithium cathode material for power vehicles.   At present, though the lithium iron phosphate battery is developing rapidly in China, there are several problems, including patent hidden trouble, low conductivity, and low capacitance, poor low-temperature performance, and low yield. VI. Future Development of Lithium Battery   Polymer Lithium Battery: one of the Future Development directions In addition to pure solid or gel polymer electrolytes, the principle and charge-discharge process of polymer lithium-ion batteries are consistent with those of liquid lithium-ion batteries.   Polymer lithium battery features include plastic flexible, more stable, safer, and less flammable, longer cycle life, higher energy density, high volume utilization(10-20% higher than lithium-ion batteries), no need to use traditional diaphragm materials, and easier for large scale production.   Polymer electrolyte is a kind of functional polymer material with ionic conductivity in solid-state which is formed by complexation of strong polar polymer and metal salt through acid-base reaction. Pure solid-state electrolyte dissolves lithium salts such as LiPF6, LiClO4, and LiBF4 in polymer bulk such as PEO and PPO as solid solvents. Gel electrolytes are electrolytes in a gel state by mixing more liquid solvents with polymer bulk.   Because there is no liquid flowing in the electrolyte, there is no leakage of the battery, so the problems such as burning and explosives are avoided. In order to reduce the thickness of the battery, a polymer lithium battery is usually packaged with aluminum plastic film with a thickness of only 0.1 mm, so it has a higher specific capacity than the ordinary lithium-ion battery.   FAQ   1. What is the difference between a lithium battery and a lithium ion battery? Lithium batteries feature primary cell construction. This means that they are single-use—or non-rechargeable. Ion batteries, on the other hand, feature secondary cell construction. This means that they can be recharged and used over and over again.   2. What are the disadvantages of lithium ion batteries? Despite its overall advantages, lithium-ion has its drawbacks. It is fragile and requires a protection circuit to maintain safe operation. Built into each pack, the protection circuit limits the peak voltage of each cell during charge and prevents the cell voltage from dropping too low on discharge.   3. Why is lithium ion the best battery? Li-ion batteries are able to be recharged hundreds of times and are more stable. They tend to have a higher energy density, voltage capacity and lower self-discharge rate than other rechargeable batteries. This makes for better power efficiency as a single cell has longer charge retention than other battery types.   4. What is the life of lithium ion battery? about two to three years. The typical estimated life of a Lithium-Ion battery is about two to three years or 300 to 500 charge cycles, whichever occurs first. One charge cycle is a period of use from fully charged, to fully discharged, and fully recharged again.   5. Is it good to fully discharge a lithium ion battery? Lithium-ion batteries should not be frequently fully discharged and recharged ("deep-cycled"). You may need to discharge it fully occasionally to recalibrate the capacitiy measuring electronics in the accumulator. Every 30 cycles or so should be enough.   6. How do I know if my lithium ion battery is bad? If the battery is dead or at the end of life, then it won't take charge anymore. If the battery is dead or at the end of life, the battery will swell a bit. The battery starts to heat up very quickly is also one of the indication that your battery is at the end of life.   7. Is there an alternative to lithium-ion batteries? Zinc-ion: A competitive alternative to lithium-ion for stationary energy storage. Lithium-ion batteries are the leading battery technology for both electric vehicles (EVs) and the renewable energy industry.   8. Do lithium ion batteries go bad if not used? Lithium Ion batteries "go bad" when they are stored in discharged state. It is all about battery voltage. If voltage is too low - undesireable chemical reactions will happen and battery will degrade. If battery is not empty and not used for long time - it will be fine.   9. What temperature is bad for lithium batteries? At temperatures above +60°C the Li-ion battery loses capacity constantly and thus performance capability.   10. At what voltage is a lithium ion battery dead? 3.4V. The voltage starts at 4.2 maximum and quickly drops down to about 3.7V for the majority of the battery life. Once you hit 3.4V the battery is dead and at 3.0V the cutoff circuitry disconnects the battery (more on that later. You may also run across 4.1V/3.6V batteries.     You May Also Like: How to Learn Analog Circuit Design Topological Materials are a Promising Material For Boosting Thermoelectric Generation Efficiency Use Polymer Films Material to Make Solar Cell Learn Some Basic Knowledge about Capacitor Voltage Transformer The First Full-Size IBC Bifacial Solar Module in the World