The Kynix Blog

Ⅰ IntroductionThe Hall Effect is the most common method of measuring magnetic fields, and Hall Effect Sensors are widely used and have a wide range of applications in modern times. For example, they're used in cars as wheel speed sensors and crankshaft or camshaft position sensors. They're often used as switches, MEMS compasses, proximity sensors, and other applications. Now we'll take a look at a few of these sensors to see how they function, but first, let's define the Hall Effect. CatalogⅠ IntroductionⅡ What is Hall EffectⅢ What is a Hall Effect SensorⅣ How Does a Hall Effect Sensor WorkⅤ Hall Effect Sensor Types  5.1 Threshold  5.2 LinearⅥ Hall Effect Sensor Uses  6.1 Head-on Detection  6.2 Sideways DetectionⅦ Hall Effect Sensor Applications  7.1 Hall Effect Sensor in Rotary Applications  7.2 Hall Effect Sensor in Proximity Applications  7.3 Proximity Hall Effect Sensor Uses in RoboticsⅧ How to Test Hall Effect SensorsⅨ FAQ Ⅱ What is Hall EffectThe experiment that describes the Hall Effect is as follows: If we have a thin conductive plate like the one shown and apply current to it, the charge carriers will flow in a straight line from one side to the other.Now, if we apply a magnetic field near the plate, we can disrupt the charge carriers' straight flow due to a force known as the Lorentz Force. The electrons would deflect to one side of the plate, while the positive holes would deflect to the other. This means that if we now connect the other two sides with a meter, we can get a voltage that can be measured.As previously mentioned, the effect of obtaining a measurable voltage is known as the Hall Effect, after Edwin Hall, who discovered it in 1879.  Ⅲ What is a Hall Effect SensorA Hall Effect sensor detects changes in magnetic field power. This sensor opens up a wide range of possibilities for robotic sensor applications.They can be used in applications such as proximity, positioning, speed, and current sensing. They're usually used on pneumatic cylinders, where they're used to communicate the cylinder's position to a PLC or robotic controller.Automotive, personal electronics, and robotics are only a few of the industries that use Hall Effect sensors. Depending on the application, they have some advantages over other sensors. They are fully encased because they operate with a magnetic field, making them less vulnerable to damage from dirty or wet conditions. They are less likely than mechanical systems to wear out or skew readings after a large number of cycles. Hall Effect sensors are useful for a wide range of applications due to their reliability and longevity since they do not need physical contact to operate properly. They can provide more repeatability and accuracy than mechanical units because they do not physically interfere with the machinery or tooling.  Ⅳ How Does a Hall Effect Sensor WorkIt's best to start with the basics of the Hall Effect to comprehend a Hall Effect sensor. As current flows through a conductor in the presence of a magnetic field, the electrons are pushed to one side of the conductor by the magnetic field. The Hall Effect can be used to measure electric current in conductors that are built with certain parameters in view. The voltage across a flat metallic conductor, for example, reveals the Hall Effect much better than the voltage across around one.The electrons moving over the conductor are forced to one side when a magnetic field is applied to the flat plate. Since the sum of deflection can be calculated, the apparatus has a wide range of applications. A flat plate conductor is used to calculate magnetic strength in a Hall Effect sensor. When a magnet gets close to the sensor, the sensor detects it and sends the information to a controller. The charge across the plate is shifted to one side while the magnet is near the sensor, producing a positive charge on one side and a negative charge on the other. The voltage difference between the two sides of the plate is determined, and it can be used to calculate magnetic strength or sensor proximity.  Ⅴ Hall Effect Sensor TypesHall Effect Sensors come in two basic types:5.1 ThresholdWhen the field strength reaches a certain amplitude and/or polarity, the threshold (also known as digital or on-off) produces a constant hall voltage. There are several different threshold device configurations, such as latching devices that turn on when a positive field strength reaches the threshold but only turn off when a negative field of the same strength reaches the threshold, devices that turn on when only a positive field reaches the threshold but are off otherwise, and devices that turn on when either a positive or negative field reaches the threshold. Thresholds can also be programmed in some computers. 5.2 LinearLinear (analog output sensor) generated a hall voltage proportional to the magnetic field strength around it. The polarity of the voltage swing is determined by the direction of the surrounding magnetic field. When expressive movements must be sensed as small changes in position, linear devices are more commonly used in musical applications. Ⅵ Hall Effect Sensor UsesHall effect sensors are powered by a magnetic field, and in many applications, a single permanent magnet connected to a moving shaft or device may control the device. There are many different forms of magnet sensing motions, including "Head-on", "Sideways", "Push-pull", and "Push-push" among others. To ensure optimum sensitivity, magnetic lines of flux must always be perpendicular to the sensing region of the system and of the right polarity, regardless of the configuration. High field strength magnets with a significant change in field strength for the necessary movement are also required to ensure linearity. There are several ways to detect a magnetic field, and two of the most common sensing configurations using a single magnet are shown below: Head-on detection and sideways detection are two types of detection. 6.1 Head-on DetectionThe magnetic field must be perpendicular to the hall effect sensing system and approach the sensor straight on towards the active face for "head-on detection" as the name suggests. In a way, it's a "front-on" approach. This direct approach produces an output signal, VH, which in linear devices reflects the magnetic field power, or magnetic flux density, as a function of distance from the hall effect sensor. The output voltage increases as the magnetic field gets closer and hence stronger, and vice versa. Positive and negative magnetic fields can also be differentiated by linear instruments. For indicating positional detection, non-linear devices can be made to trigger the output "ON" at a pre-set air gap distance away from the magnet. 6.2 Sideways Detection"Sideways detection" is the second sensing configuration. This necessitates moving the magnet sideways across the face of the Hall effect element. For example, counting rotational magnets or measuring the speed of rotation of motors, sideways or slide-by detection is useful for detecting the presence of a magnetic field as it travels across the face of the Hall element within a fixed air gap distance. A linear output voltage representing both a positive and negative output can be generated depending on the direction of the magnetic field as it passes by the sensor's zero-field centerline. This enables the identification of directional movement in both vertical and horizontal directions. Hall Effect Sensors have a wide range of applications, especially as proximity sensors. Where the environmental factors include water, vibration, dirt, or oil, such as in automotive applications, they can be used instead of optical and light sensors. Present sensing can also be done with Hall effect instruments.A circular electromagnetic field is formed around a conductor when a current passes through it, as we learned in previous tutorials. Electrical currents ranging from a few milliamps to thousands of amperes can be calculated from the induced magnetic field by placing the Hall sensor next to the conductor without the use of large or expensive transformers and coils. Hall effect sensors can be used to detect ferromagnetic materials such as iron and steel, in addition to detecting the presence or absence of magnets and magnetic fields, by putting a small permanent "biasing" magnet behind the active region of the device. Any shift or disruption to this magnetic field caused by the introduction of a ferrous material can be detected with sensitivities as low as mV/G. Depending on the type of device, whether digital or linear, there are a variety of ways to connect Hall effect sensors to electrical and electronic circuits. The use of a Light Emitting Diode, as shown below, is a very simple and easy-to-build example. Hall effect sensors can be used in a variety of ways due to the different magnetic movements. In both industrial and domestic environments, the most common application for these instruments is to measure objects' presence, position, and proximity. Current sensors, pressure sensors, and fluid flow sensors are all popular applications for Hall effect sensors in industrial and manufacturing processes. In current transformers, Hall effect sensors are an inexpensive, contactless way to measure DC magnetic flux.  Ⅶ Hall Effect Sensor Applications7.1 Hall Effect Sensor in Rotary ApplicationsSpeed sensors operate by counting the number of times a shaft or disk rotates in a given amount of time. A disk attached to the motor shaft rotates next to the Hall Effect sensor and has magnets on its perimeter. The state of the sensor is shifted as the magnets move through it. Based on this data, the sensor calculates the revolutions. For example, if the disk or shaft has four magnets, the sensor can switch states four times per revolution.This enables the sensor to measure the RPM based on the known parameter that four pulses per revolution will occur. This technology is used in brushless DC motors to track speed and detect shaft position. This enables them to run at specific RPM ranges while still allowing them to change the motor speed at any time. This makes controlling the motors a lot easier. It also allows them to monitor the location of the shaft on the motor, making them much more flexible in the robotics industry than motors without Hall Effect sensors. 7.2 Hall Effect Sensor in Proximity ApplicationsBased on a magnetic field, Hall Effect sensors can detect proximity. If the magnetic field strength is constant and defined, the position of the sensor in relation to the magnet can be determined. When a magnet moves into its range, the sensor changes states and alerts the controller. Proximity Hall Effect sensors can be used in a variety of ways. Robotic tooling, robotic grippers, pneumatics, and a variety of other non-robotic applications use them.7.3 Proximity Hall Effect Sensor Uses in RoboticsProximity Hall effect sensors can also be used in robotics. They're good for detecting magnetic strength and magnet proximity. Hall Effect sensors may be used to meet a variety of safety requirements. They are often used in tooling to provide clamp confirmation to the controlling device. Clamp confirmation locks the cell's operation until all sections are fully clamped, allowing it to function safely. Magnets embedded in the tooling that fall within the sensing range of the Hall Effect sensor when properly clamped normally dictate part confirmation. The robotic controller or PLC knows the cell is safe to operate when all sensors display a signal. In the robotics industry, Hall Effect sensors are extremely useful. For sensing changes in the cell, most robotic cells use a Hall Effect sensor. They are used to read the speed and position of DC brushless motors. They are used in pneumatic cylinders to determine if the cylinder is extended or retracted. They can also be used to keep staff healthy by notifying the controlling body of tooling clamp confirmation. Without Hall Effect sensors, the robotics industry will be very different.  Ⅷ How to Test Hall Effect SensorsThe camshaft and crankshaft position sensors are Hall effect sensors that control the camshaft and crankshaft position, respectively. In front of the sensor, a small magnet passes. The output voltage increases as the magnet get closer to the sensor. The voltage drops as the magnet moves away from the sensor. To assess shaft position, the electronic control module tracks these sensor outputs. The ECM can maintain precise engine control thanks to the camshaft and crankshaft position sensors, as well as other electrical sensors, solenoids, and injectors. Understand the basics of Hall effect sensors will aid you in properly testing a questionable sensor. • Step 1Remove the sensor from the engine block. Remove any oil, dirt, or metal shavings from the sensor tip. • Step 2Examine the engine's schematic for the camshaft sensor or crankshaft signal to the ECM. The signal wire from the ECM should be removed. Connect the signal wire to one end of the jumper wire. Connect the jumper wire's other end to the optimistic probe's edge. Connect the negative probe to stable chassis ground. Connect the negative probe to the chassis ground with a jumper and alligator clips if necessary. To test DC volts, switch the electric voltmeter. Turn the key switch to "On". Ideally, the voltage should be about 0 volts. Slowly rotate the magnet perpendicular to the sensor's front. When the magnet approaches the sensor, the voltage should rise, and as it moves away, the voltage should fall. There is a problem with the sensor or the sensor's connections if the voltage does not change. Ⅸ FAQ1. How does a Hall effect sensor work?Using semiconductors (such as silicon), Hall effect sensors work by measuring the changing voltage when the device is placed in a magnetic field. In other words, once a Hall effect sensor detects that it is now in a magnetic field, it can sense the position of objects. 2. What triggers a Hall effect device?Hall effect sensors are activated by a magnetic field and in many applications, the device can be operated by a single permanent magnet attached to a moving shaft or device. There are many different types of magnet movements, such as ‘Head-on’, ‘Sideways’, ‘Push-pull’ or ‘Push-push’ etc sensing movements. 3. What is the use of a hall effect sensor?Hall effect sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as for internal combustion engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They are used in brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. 4. What is the principle of the Hall effect?The Hall Effect principle states that when a current-carrying conductor or a semiconductor is introduced to a perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage can be measured at the right angle to the current path. 5. How sensitive is a Hall effect sensor?These ratiometric devices have a sensitivity of 5 mV/gauss and 2.5 mV/ gauss, respectively, an operating temperature range of -40°C to +150°C, and are temperature compensated over their full operating range. 6. What is the difference between a Hall effect sensor and an inductive sensor?Inductive sensors detect metallic objects and hall effect sensors detect the presence of a magnetic field. 7. What is the origin of the Hall effect?The history of the Hall effect begins in 1879 when Edwin H. Hall discovered that a small transverse voltage appeared across a current-carrying thin metal strip in an applied magnetic field. 8. How can you tell if a Hall sensor is bad?Loss of power, loud noise and the feeling that the motor is somehow blocked are often signs that either the controller is dead or that you may have issues with the hall sensors inside the motor. 9. What is inside a Hall effect sensor?The Hall effect sensor is a thin sliver of semiconductor material just like the chip inside a micro or RAM devise. It works on the electromagnetism principle. When you move a magnet close enough to the sensor generates a small voltage. This goes to an amplifier which boosts the voltage high enough to be used by other electronic devices. The best example is the wheel speed sensor. A small magnet is attached to the inside of a car wheel. Every time the magnet moves past the sensor that is one rotation of the wheel. The information is passed to the speedometer and odometer unit where it is displayed to the driver. 10. What is a hall effect sensor for on a vehicle?A hall effect sensor operates by a magnetic field and can also be referred to as a crank position sensor. It checks the crankshaft position for the engine to fire the spark plugs. If it is bad, the engine might stall and would not start without the signal from the Hall effect sensor. Hall effect sensors can also be used to determine speed, distance, or engine crankshaft position and camshaft position. All hall effect sensors have different electronics internally with different program measurements and are not interchangeable.

IntroductionA p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between n-type and p-type semiconductor materials, inside a semiconductor. One of the crucial keys to solid state electronics is the nature of the P-N junction. For example, a PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. And the p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons. Why pn junction exists? and How does it work? What is p-n junction diode?PN Junction IntroductionCatalogIntroductionIntroductionⅠ PN Junction Basic1.1 PN Semiconductor1.2 PN Junction ReviewⅡ PN Junction Characteristic2.1 Unidirectional Conductivity2.2 Reverse Breakdown2.3 Volt-Ampere Characteristic2.4 Capacitance CharacteristicⅢ Typical Example: Transistor PN JunctionⅠ PN Junction Basic1.1 PN SemiconductorN-type SemiconductorIn silicon crystal (or germanium crystal) doped with a small amount of impurity phosphorus element (or antimony element), since semiconductor atoms (such as silicon atoms) are replaced by impurity atoms, among the five outer electrons in the outer layer of phosphorus atoms four of them form covalent bonds with the surrounding atoms, and the extra electron is almost unbound and becomes a free electron more easily. Therefore, the N-type semiconductor has become a semiconductor with a higher concentration of electrons, and its conductivity is mainly due to the conduction of free electrons.P-type SemiconductorIn silicon crystal (or germanium crystal) doped with a small amount of impurity boron element (or indium element), since semiconductor atoms (such as silicon atoms) are replaced by impurity atoms, the three outer electrons in the outer layer of boron atoms and a semiconductor atom form a covalent bond, at this time, a "hole" is generated. This hole may attract bound electrons to "fill", making the boron atom a negatively charged ion. In this way, this type of semiconductor has a higher concentration of "holes" ("corresponding to" positive charges) and becomes a substance capable of conducting electricity.1.2 PN Junction ReviewP-N junction is formed by joining n-type and p-type semiconductor materials, which is a two terminal device that allows electric current in one direction and blocks electric current in another direction.Figure 1. How is PN Junction FormedOn a silicon wafer, different doping processes are used to form an N-type semiconductor on one side and a P-type semiconductor on the other side. We call the area near the interface of the two semiconductors a PN junction.After the P-type semiconductor and the N-type semiconductor are combined, since the free electrons in the N-type region are more and the holes are less, the concentration difference between electrons and holes appears at their junction. Due to the difference in the concentration of free electrons and holes, some electrons will diffuse from the N-type region to the P-type region, and some holes will diffuse from the P-type region to the N-type region. As a result of their diffusion, the P region loses holes, leaving negatively charged impurity ions, and the N region loses electrons, leaving positively charged impurity ions. The ions in the semiconductor cannot move arbitrarily in an open circuit, so they do not participate in conduction. These immovable charged particles form a space charge zone near the interface between the P and N zones. The thickness of the space charge zone is related to the concentration of dopants.After the space charge region is formed, due to the interaction between the positive and negative charges, an internal electric field is formed in the space charge region, the direction of which is from the positively charged N region to the negatively charged P region. Obviously, the direction of this electric field is opposite to the direction of carrier diffusion, which used to prevent diffusion.On the other hand, this electric field will cause the minority carrier holes in the N region to drift to the P region, and the minority carrier electrons in the P region to drift to the N region. The direction of the drift movement is just opposite to the diffusion movement. The holes drifting from the N region to the P region supplement the holes lost in the P region on the original interface, and the electrons drifting from the P region to the N region supplement the electrons lost in the N region on the original interface, which makes the electric charge is reduced and the internal electric field is weakened. Therefore, the result of drift motion is to narrow the space charge region and strengthen the diffusion motion.Finally, the diffusion of multiple carriers and the drift of minority carriers reach a dynamic balance. On both sides of the junction surface of the P-type semiconductor and the N-type semiconductor, a thin ion layer is left. The charge area formed by this thin ion layer is called a PN junction. The direction of the internal electric field of the PN junction points from the N to the P. It is also called the depletion layer, because lack of electrons.Figure 2. PN Junction Depletion RegionⅡ PN Junction Characteristic2.1 Unidirectional Conductivity(1) The PN junction is turned on when the forward voltage is applied.If the positive pole of the power supply is connected to the P area and the negative pole is connected to the N area, a part of the applied forward voltage is in the PN junction area, at this time, the PN junction is in a forward bias. The current flows from the P to the N, and the holes and electrons move to the interface, which narrows the space charge area. In addition, the current can pass smoothly. Its direction is opposite to the direction of the electric field in the PN junction, which weakens the internal electric field. As a result, the resistance of the internal electric field to the diffusion movement of the multitons weakens, and the diffusion current increases. The diffusion current is much larger than the drift current, and the influence of the drift current can be ignored, and the PN junction is in low resistance.(2) PN junction is cut off when reverse voltage is applied.If the positive pole of the power supply is connected to the N zone, the negative pole is connected to the P zone, and a part of the applied reverse voltage applies in the PN junction zone, and it is in reverse bias. Then the holes and electrons move away from the interface, which widens the space charge area, and the current cannot flow. The direction is the same as the direction of the electric field in the PN junction, which strengthens the internal electric field. The resistance of the internal electric field to the multiton diffusion movement is enhanced, and the diffusion current is greatly reduced. At this time, the drift current formed by the minority carriers in the PN junction region under the action of the internal electric field is greater than the diffusion current. The diffusion current can be ignored, and the PN junction exhibits high resistance.2.2 Reverse BreakdownWhen a reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the space charge region becomes wider and the electric field in the region strengthens. When the reverse voltage increases to a certain level, the reverse current will suddenly increase. If the external circuit cannot limit the current, the current will be so large that it will burn the PN junction. At this time, it is called the breakdown voltage. There are two basic breakdown ways, namely tunnel breakdown (also called Zener breakdown) and avalanche breakdown. The former has a breakdown voltage of less than 6V and has a negative temperature coefficient, and the latter has a breakdown voltage of greater than 6V and a positive temperature coefficient.2.3 Volt-Ampere CharacteristicThe volt-ampere characteristics of the PN junction are shown in the Figure 3, which visually shows the unidirectional conductivity.Figure 3. Volt-Ampere Curve of the PN JunctionThe volt-ampere characteristic shows by Where iD is the current passing through the PN junction, VD is the applied voltage at both ends of the PN junction, and VT is the voltage equivalent of temperature.2.4 Capacitance CharacteristicWhen a reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the positive and negative charges in the space charge region constitute a capacitive device. Its capacitance changes with the applied voltage, mainly including barrier capacitance (CB) and diffusion capacitance (CD). Both of them are non-linear capacitors. Ⅲ Typical Example: Transistor PN JunctionTransistors are one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. In the diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up from two pieces of semiconductor material to form a simple pn-junction. While the transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two diodes back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions.Transistor NPN-Type and PNP-Type JunctionsTransistor Working StateThe transistor works like an electronic switch. It can turn a current ON and OFF. The basic idea behind a transistor is that it lets you control the flow of current through one channel by varying the intensity of a much smaller current that's flowing through a second channel.1) Cut-off State (C): The base current is zero.2) Amplified State (A): The transmitter junction is forward biased (that is, the voltage direction is P->N), and the collector junction is reverse biased.3) Saturation State (S): Both the emitter junction and the collector junction are forward biased.Working StateNPN-Type TransistorPNP-Type TransistorVb<Ve (C)Vc>Vb>Ve (A)Vb>Ve Vb>Vc (S)Vb>Ve (C)Vc<Vb<Ve (A)Vb<Ve Vb<Vc (S)In Figure (a), when there is no voltage input at b of the NPN transistor, no current flows between c and e, and the triode is in the cut-off state.In Figure (b), when a positive voltage is input to b of the NPN transistor, the negative electrons in the N region of e are attracted by the positrons of P region in b. Due to the effect of the power plant, and they rush (diffuse) to the base region, however, only part of the negative electrons collide with the positive electrons (recombination) to generate the base current, and the other part of the negative electrons gather near the collector junction. The negative electrons gathered in the collector junction pass through (drift) the collector junction due to the action of the electric field. After reaching the collector area, it collides with the positrons gathered in c (N-type semiconductor terminal) to generate a collector current.It can be seen from this that the greater the base current, the greater the collector current. That is, when a small current is input to the collector, a large current can be obtained by the collector, and now the transistor is in an amplified state.It should be noted that when the base current reaches a certain level, the collector current no longer rises. At this time, the transistor loses its current amplification effect, and the voltage between the collector and the emitter is very small. The collector and emitter are equivalent to the on-state of the switch. At this moment, the transistor is in a saturated state.The working principle of the PNP transistor is the same as that of the NPN transistor, except that the direction of the bias voltage and the current are opposite, and the roles of electrons and holes are reversed. The PNP transistor uses Veb to control the positrons incident on the collector area from the emitter area through the base area, while the NPN transistor uses Vbe to control the negative electrons that enter the collector area from the emitter area through the base area.In addition, in a low-power design, the transistor control circuit will have a certain impact on the circuit. No matter it is NPN or PNP, there will be leakage current in the PN junction of the transistor. When the I/O controls the base voltage, in order to stabilize the base voltage, a pull-down resistor is generally added to the base of the NPN switch circuit. In the design of the PNP switch circuit, a pull-down resistor is added to the base. The pull-up and pull-down resistors are selected according to the control chip, transistor and circuit voltage. Frequently Asked Questions about PN Junctions Formed1. What is PN junction and how it is formed?P-n junctions are formed by joining n-type and p-type semiconductor materials, as shown below. ... However, in a p-n junction, when the electrons and holes move to the other side of the junction, they leave behind exposed charges on dopant atom sites, which are fixed in the crystal lattice and are unable to move. 2. What is p-type and n-type?In silicon doping, there are two types of impurities: n-type and p-type. In n-type doping, arsenic or phosphorus is added in small quantities to the silicon. ... In p-type doping, boron or gallium is used as the dopant. These elements each have three electrons in their outer orbitals. 3. What is a PN junction diode?A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. ... By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. 4. What happens in a PN junction?A forward-biased PN junction conducts a current once the barrier voltage is overcome. The external applied potential forces majority carriers toward the junction where recombination takes place, allowing current flow. A reverse-biased PN junction conducts almost no current. 5. What is a PN junction used for?A p-n junction diode is a two terminal device that allows electric current in one direction and blocks electric current in another direction. In forward bias condition, the diode allows electric current whereas in reverse bias condition, the diode does not allow electric current.

PCB printers are able to make PCBs without engraving. they do this by spraying a special type of ink called conductive ink on a flat, hard surface. Printers that can easily print electronic circuits rather than circuit boards are also under development. Top 5 PCB Printing and Prototyping machines for your desktop In this blog, you will see top 5 best PCB printers on your desk, each with their own advantages of use, for users with different printing needs. You can take a quick look at the features of 5  PCB printers below:  - Nano Dimension DragonFly 2020: World’s first 3-D PCB printer  - Voltera V-One: Circuit board prototyping machine  - The Othermill: A desktop CNC mill for electronics  - Voxel8: 3D electronics printing  - Prometheus PCB milling machine Nano Dimension DragonFly 2020 PCB Printer The Nano Dimension DragonFly 2020 PCB printer is touted as the world's first 3-D PCB printer and the first desktop printer to meet IPC guidelines. It can produce PCBs from scratch with a minimum feature size of 80 μm and a maximum of 1.5 mm. the minimum layer thickness is 30 μm or 0.03 mm. the positioning accuracy is 25 μm along any axis. the maximum build size is 200 x 200 x 3 mm. it can produce multilayer PCBs with a total thickness of up to 3 mm. the printer supports many different conductive and dielectric inks. Voltera V-One PCB Printer The Voltera V-One is a printed circuit board printer that is very easy to use and perfect for electronics R&D departments, schools, or researchers. This tool makes it as easy to print circuit boards as it is to print parts. Users build boards faster, using the Voltera V-One printer to prototype project boards on the desktop. The process is as simple as inputting a gerber file into the Voltera software, pressing print, and the V-One will print out a lifelike circuit, then use the spray paste (solder) and reflow features to solder the electronics to the board. The Voltera V-One can be used to -Print circuits: Design, fabricate, test, and recreate circuit cloth -Assemble electronic components: Solder electronic components as small as 0402 to a circuit board with solder paste -Research: Spray and cure your own materials Othermill Pro PCB Printer Othermill Pro is a portable, precise milling machine that allows you to use digital designs to create 2D and 3D objects from durable materials such as wood, metal and plastic. Othermill Pro is essentially for the production of fast double-sided printed circuit boards with trace widths down to 150 μm. positioning accuracy is approximately 75 μm. workpiece sizes up to 140 x 114 mm are possible. One limitation is that harder materials such as glass and FR-4 cannot be used. the Othermill Pro can be used with a wide range of operating systems and PCB software. It is currently only available in the US. Voxel8 PCB Printer The Voxel8 desktop 3D printer was developed based on basic patents related to the University of Illinois and Harvard University and features two different print heads, one based on common FFF/FDM technology using fused wire and the other using conductive silver ink. Functional materials are at the heart of the Voxel8 technology, and according to the company, their silver ink is 20,000 times more conductive than the most conductive thermoplastic wire currently available, and 5,000 times more conductive than carbon-based inks such as Bare Conductive material! Voxel8's specially formulated inks are deposited through a dedicated 250 micron diameter nozzle. Once printed, it dries quickly at room temperature and requires no post-processing. These properties make it possible to print on traditional thermoplastic materials. 3D electronics printing requires the ability to insert multiple components into the printing process. The Voxel8 desktop 3D printer is equipped with a highly repeatable magnetic print bed that enables you to temporarily remove the printed object during the printing process, insert components, such as LEDs or sensors, and then put them back in to continue the printing process. This technology has a wide range of potential uses for printed circuits, 3D polymer scaffolds for tissue engineering and advanced materials for energy harvesting storage, among others. Prometheus PCB milling machine Prometheus: This is not only a 3D printer. The desktop manufacturing space has been dominated by 3D printers for years, but other types of machines (mills, laser cutters, robotic arms, etc.) are bringing prices to amateurs and small businesses. Zippy Robotics founder Rocco Tuccio plans to bring custom printed circuit board (PCB) fabrication to engineers and electronics enthusiasts for about $2,500.The Prometheus is a desktop machine that can create real circuit boards in minutes. Tuccio hopes to provide rapid PCB prototyping capabilities to as many people as possible. What makes Prometheus PCB milling machine different? 1. The extremely small runout error allows you to precisely cut traces down to 7 mils (7 thousand inches), which means you can design with virtually any surface mount component. 2. High spindle speeds allow you to mill 3" x 5" boards in minutes (not hours)! 3. Included software gives you control over the entire tool chain, including the easy-to-use Circuit Factory design software and public API. 4. Prices are a few thousand less than similar precision machines. FAQ 1. What is a PCB in a printer? While design of a printed circuit board (PCB) can be done internally, manufacturing is generally outsourced. This dependence often results in uncontrollable, and unexpected delays. ... It is here that desktop PCB printers are aiming to come to the rescue. 2. How much does it cost to print a PCB? In general, the cost to produce a PCB will cost between $10 and $50 per board. 3. How does a PCB printer work? A special printer called a plotted printer is used to print the design of the PCB. It produces a film that shows the details and layers of the board. When printed, there will be two ink colors used on the inside layer of the board: Clear Ink to show the non-conductive areas. 4.Why are PCB green? It is due to the solder mask, which protects the copper circuits printed on the fibre glass core to prevent short circuits, soldering errors, etc. ... The colour of the solder mask gives the board its appearance. 5. How much does custom PCB cost? At BatchPCB, a two-layer board costs $2.50 per square inch (about $0.40 per square centimeter), while a four-layer board costs $8 for the same area (about $1.24/cm2). The first step in creating a custom PCB is laying out the schematic view. 6. How do I print directly from PCB? A laser printer is used to print an image of the PCB on special “transfer paper” which is then placed on the bare copperclad board and either ironed or run through a modified laminator to transfer the image to the copper. 7. What does PCB stand for? Printed circuit board. A printed circuit board, or PC board, or PCB, is a non-conductive material with conductive lines printed or etched. Electronic components are mounted on the board and the traces connect the components together to form a working circuit or assembly. 8. What is PCB made of? Copper circuitry. Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are usually a flat laminated composite made from non-conductive substrate materials with layers of copper circuitry buried internally or on the external surfaces. They can be as simple as one or two layers of copper, or in high density applications they can have fifty layers or more. 9. Which type of PCB is more economical type? Aluminum-Backed PCBs. Aluminum is inexpensive, making almost 8.23% of planet's weight, and leads to most economical manufacturing process. PCBs made up of aluminum are easily recyclable and non-toxic in nature, making them as ideal source for energy conservation. 10. How do you choose a PCB material? Electrical functionality is based on PCB function, which makes it a good criterion for design-based circuit board material selection. According to function, PCBs may be classified as the following board types: High Frequency (High Speed) – These boards can accommodate frequencies in the 500MHz – 2GHz range.

CatalogⅠ What is a Tantalum CapacitorⅡ Construction and Properties of Tantalum CapacitorⅢ Characteristics of Tantalum Capacitor  3.1 General Characteristic  3.2 Polarity  3.3 Failure Mode of Tantalum CapacitorⅣ Tantalum Capacitor Classification  4.1 Leaded Tantalum Capacitors  4.2 SMD Tantalum CapacitorsⅤ Applications for Tantalum CapacitorⅥ Difference Between Tantalum and Ceramic CapacitorⅦ FAQ Ⅰ What is a Tantalum CapacitorTantalum capacitors have a tantalum anode and are electrolytic capacitors. They're polarized capacitors that have excellent frequency and stability. Electrolytic capacitors with tantalum as a component are known as tantalum capacitors. They're made of tantalum metal, which serves as an anode, with a layer of oxide acting as a dielectric and a conductive cathode surrounding it.Tantalum is used to create a very thin dielectric layer. As a result, the capacitance value per volume is higher, the frequency characteristics are superior to many other types of capacitors, and the capacitor has excellent long-term stability. Tantalum capacitors are usually polarized, which means they can only be connected to a DC supply if the terminal polarity is maintained. The disadvantage of using tantalum capacitors is that they have an unfavorable failure mode, which can result in thermal runaways, fires, and minor explosions. This can be avoided by using external failsafe devices such as current limiters or thermal fuses. Tantalum capacitors can now be used in a wide range of circuits, including computers, automobiles, cell phones, and other electronic devices, most commonly surface-mounted devices (SMD). These surface-mount tantalum capacitors take up significantly less space on the printed circuit board, allowing for higher packing densities. It's worth noting that, like resistors, there are both fixed and variable capacitors. Capacitors with fixed values are classified as either non-polarized or polarized capacitors, depending on their polarity. The three most common capacitor types are represented by electric symbols in the figure below.Tantalum capacitor-capacitor symbols Ⅱ Construction and Properties of Tantalum CapacitorTantalum (Ta) is a silver-gray metal with the atomic number 73. When looking at a cross-sectional view of a tantalum capacitor, such as a standard SMD tantalum electrolytic chip capacitor with solid electrolyte shown in the Figure below, the positive (anode) terminal is tantalum powder pressed and sintered into a pallet. The dielectric is formed by an insulating oxide layer covering the positive (anode) terminal, and the negative (cathode) terminal is formed by a solid manganese dioxide electrolyte. Tantalum capacitor-construction of tantalum capacitor In the case of solid tantalum capacitors, the electrolyte is added to the anode through pyrolysis. To create a manganese dioxide coat, solid tantalum capacitors are dipped in a special solution and baked in an oven. The procedure is repeated until the pellet has a dense coating on both internal and external surfaces. Finally, to ensure a strong cathode connection, the pellet used in solid tantalum capacitors is dipped in graphite and silver. Wet tantalum capacitors, unlike solid tantalum capacitors, use a liquid electrolyte. The anode is dipped into a liquid electrolyte inside an enclosure after it has been sintered and a dielectric layer has been grown. In wet tantalum capacitors, the enclosure and electrolyte serve as the cathode. Tantalum capacitors have a high capacitance per volume and weight due to their thin, high permittivity dielectric sheet, which sets them apart from other electrolytic capacitors. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors are also ideal for passing or bypassing low-frequency signals and storing significant quantities of electric energy due to their large capacitance. Ⅲ Characteristics of Tantalum Capacitor3.1 General CharacteristicTantalum capacitors have capacitance values ranging from 1nF to 72mF and are significantly smaller than aluminum electrolytic capacitors of the same capacitance. Tantalum capacitors have voltage ratings ranging from 2V to more than 500V. They have a ten-fold lower equivalent series resistance (ESR) than aluminum electrolytic capacitors, allowing for higher currents to pass through the capacitor while generating less heat. As compared to aluminum electrolytic capacitors, tantalum capacitors are very stable over time and their capacitance does not change significantly with age. When handled properly, they are extremely dependable, and their shelf life is nearly limitless.3.2 PolarityTantalum electrolytic capacitors have a very high polarization. Although polarized aluminum electrolytic capacitors can survive a brief reverse voltage, tantalum capacitors are extremely sensitive to reverse polarization. When a voltage of the opposite polarity is applied, the dielectric oxide breaks down, resulting in a short circuit. This short circuit could lead to thermal runaway and the capacitor's destruction in the future. In comparison to aluminum electrolytic capacitors, which have their negative terminal marked on the casing, tantalum capacitors typically have their positive terminal marked.3.3 Failure Mode of Tantalum CapacitorAccording to a paper published by ASM International, the Tantalum capacitor failure mode is divided into three major groups. • High Leakage/ShortHigh leakage currents may result from applying reverse voltage, which is common during troubleshooting, malfunctions, and/or bench testing. Since the hotspots formed during crystallization heat the cathode, tantalum capacitors with crystallization cause short circuit failure.　　• High Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR)When a capacitor is exposed to board mounting, pick-and-place, reflow, and operation lifetime, the mechanical/thermomechanical has a significant impact on its ESR. External and/or internal relations are often harmed as a result of this form of stress, resulting in a high ESR. • Low Capacitance/OpenThe failure is uncommon since the capacitance of a Tantalum capacitor does not shift under normal operating conditions. A Tantalum capacitor's lower capacitance in any application may indicate a shorted capacitor, while an open failure can be caused by a damaged positive lead and wire link. Tantalum capacitors, as we all know, have a potentially dangerous failure mode. The tantalum anode may come into contact with the manganese dioxide cathode during voltage spikes, and if the energy of the spike is adequate, a chemical reaction may start. This chemical reaction generates heat and is self-sustaining, as well as the possibility of smoke and flame. External failsafe circuitry, such as current limiters and thermal fuses, should be used in combination with tantalum capacitors to avoid thermal runaway.  Ⅳ Tantalum Capacitor Classification4.1 Leaded Tantalum CapacitorsTo avoid damage, leaded tantalum capacitors are usually packaged in a small epoxy box. Tantalum bead capacitors are the name given to them because of their shape. Although a color-coding scheme was common at one time and some capacitors still use it, the capacitor markings are usually written directly onto the encapsulation as figures.Leaded tantalum capacitors 4.2 SMD Tantalum CapacitorsTantalum capacitors with a surface mount are commonly used in modern electronics. When designed with enough margins, they provide dependable service and allow for high capacitance values to be achieved in the small package sizes needed for modern equipment. Due to their inability to withstand the temperatures needed for soldering, aluminum electrolytes were not initially available in surface-mount packages. As a result, tantalum capacitors that could withstand the soldering process were nearly the only choice for high-value capacitors in surface-mount assemblies. Despite the availability of SMD electrolytic, tantalum remains the capacitor of choice for SMD due to its excellent cost, size, and performance parameters.SMD tantalum capacitor • SMD Tantalum Capacitor MarkingsSMD tantalum capacitors usually have three numbers on their markings. The major figures are the first two, and the multiplier is the third. Values are in picofarads. As a result, the SMD tantalum capacitor's value is 47 x 105pF, which equals 4.7F.As seen in the illustration below, values are often marked more directly. The markings indicate the value.SMD tantalum capacitor markings Ⅴ Applications of Tantalum CapacitorTantalum capacitors have many advantages and are used in a variety of applications, including modern electronics, where they provide higher stability over a wide range of temperatures and frequencies, long-term reliability, and record-high volumetric efficiency. Tantalum capacitors are used in applications because of their low leakage current, high capacity, and long-term stability and reliability. They're used in sample and hold circuits, for example, where a low leakage current is needed to achieve a long hold duration. Due to their small size and long-term reliability, they are often widely used for power supply filtering on computer motherboards and mobile phones, most commonly in surface-mount form.Applications of tantalum capacitorsMilitary standards (MIL-SPEC) tantalum capacitors are also available, with tighter tolerances and a wider operating temperature range. Since they do not dry out or change capacitance over time, they are a common substitute for aluminum electrolytic in military applications. Tantalum is also used in medical electronics because of its high stability. Tantalum capacitors are often used in audio amplifiers where stability is important. A tantalum capacitor is a complex component used in cardio implants to detect irregular heartbeats and deliver an electric countershock in a few seconds. Medical, telecommunications, aerospace, military, automotive, and computers are only a few of the industries that use this capacitor. Ⅵ Difference Between Tantalum and Ceramic CapacitorTantalum capacitors are used in a wide range of circuits, although they usually need an external failsafe system to prevent issues caused by their failure mode. PCs, laptops, medical equipment, audio amplifiers, automotive circuitry, mobile phones, and other surface-mounted devices are only a few examples (SMD). Tantalum electrolytic is a common alternative to aluminum electrolytic in military applications because it does not dry out or change capacitance over time. Ceramic capacitors are used in a wide range of applications, the most popular of which are personal electronic devices. MLCCs are the most widely used capacitors, accounting for around 1 billion electronic devices a year. Printed circuit boards (PCBs), induction furnaces, DC-DC converters, and power circuit breakers are some examples of applications. Since ceramic capacitors are non-polarized and come in a wide range of capacitances, voltage ratings, and sizes, they are often used as general-purpose capacitors. Tantalum Capacitors vs Ceramic CapacitorsWhile tantalum and ceramic capacitors have similar functions, their construction methods, materials, and performance are vastly different. Tantalum and ceramic capacitors vary in a few main ways when it comes to performance: • AgingWhen it comes to capacitors, aging refers to a logarithmic drop in capacitance over time. Tantalum capacitors do not age, while ceramic capacitors do. There is no known wear mechanism for tantalum capacitors. • PolarizationThe majority of tantalum capacitors are polarized. This means they can only be linked to a DC power source while maintaining proper terminal polarity. Non-polarized ceramic capacitors, on the other hand, can be safely connected to an AC source. Ceramic capacitors have a higher frequency response because they are not polarized. • Temperature ResponseTantalum capacitors have a linear capacitance change when exposed to temperature changes, whereas ceramic capacitors have a non-linear response. On the other hand, Ceramic capacitors can be made to trend linearly by narrowing the operating temperature ranges and taking temperature response into account during the design phase. • Voltage ResponseTantalum capacitors have clear capacitance changes as a function of applied voltage, whereas ceramic capacitors do not. The permittivity of the dielectric shrinks inside the ceramic capacitor in response to higher applied voltages, causing capacitance changes. While most ceramic capacitor capacitance changes are linear and easily accounted for, some higher permittivity dielectrics can lose up to 70% of their initial capacitance when operated at rated voltage.  Ⅶ FAQ1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the tantalum capacitor?The list of the advantages and disadvantages of a solid tantalum capacitor includes the followingThe advantages are Long life, high-temperature resistance, excellent performance, high accuracy, efficiency in filtering high-frequency harmonics.The disadvantages are: Having a very thin oxide layer that is not robust, cannot withstand voltage above limits, low ripple current rating. 2. When to use a tantalum capacitor?When you need maximum capacitance in a small space like decoupling next to a microchip, excellent stability over a range of temperatures or voltages, and you are aware of their unique characteristics so they can be designed properly and not risk your system with a fiery failure. 3. What is surge voltage in terms of the tantalum capacitor?A surge voltage is the highest voltage that can be applied to a capacitor for a shorter period in circuits that has minimum series resistance. 4. What is the difference between tantalum and electrolytic capacitors?Electrolytic capacitors made with aluminum (or aluminum) are generally lower priced than those made with tantalum. Tantalum capacitors have higher capacitance per volume. Capacitors made with tantalum can be either polar and non-polar though the polarized form is more common. 5. Why do tantalum capacitors fail?A transient voltage or a current spike applied to tantalum electrolytic capacitors with solid manganese dioxide electrolyte can cause some tantalum capacitors to fail and may directly lead to a short. 6. How long do tantalum capacitors last?The capacitance stability achieved by polymer tantalum capacitors exceeds that of MLCCs over time, temperature and voltage. Whilst MLCCs are susceptible to aging, polymer tantalums achieve long-term stability over an operational lifetime of 20 years. 7. Are all tantalum capacitors polarized?Tantalum capacitors are inherently polarized components. Reverse voltage can destroy the capacitor. Non-polar or bipolar tantalum capacitors are made by effectively connecting two polarized capacitors in series, with the anodes oriented in opposite directions. 8. What is a tantalum capacitor used for?Applications using tantalum capacitors take advantage of their low leakage current, high capacity and long-term stability and reliability. For example, they are used in sample and hold circuits that rely on low leakage current to achieve long hold duration. 9. Can I replace a tantalum capacitor with an electrolytic?A tantalum capacitor is also a type of electrolytic capacitor, however, due to low leakage, they are more accurate and reliable than the cylindrical electrolytic capacitor variants. If the leakage factor is not too critical then you can easily replace a tantalum capacitor with the other regular electrolytic capacitor. 10. What is a wet tantalum capacitor?Wet tantalum capacitors are passive devices that provide capacitive reactance to circuits. They are electrolytic capacitors with a wet electrolyte, an anode and a cathode. They are used over other capacitor types due to superior characteristics including volumetric efficiency, high reliability, electrical stability over a wide temperature range and long service life. Wet tantalum capacitor technology is best suited for applications such as military, aerospace, satellites and heavy industrial application fields.

IntroductionCurrent divider equations and voltage divider formulas help you better understand resistor functions in electronic circuits. The current divider circuit is a parallel circuit in which the source current or power supply current divided into a multiple parallel paths. In a parallel circuit, the terminals of all components are connected together, sharing the same two end nodes. This results in the current to flow or pass through different paths and branches. However, the current through each component can have a different value. While a voltage divider circuit is a very common circuit that takes a higher voltage and converts it to a lower one by using a pair of resistors.The main feature of a parallel circuit is that, although the branch circuit currents are different, the voltages of all connection paths are the same. Therefore, there is no need to find the voltage of each resistor, so that the branch current can be easily found by Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) and Ohm's law.Figure 1. Voltage and Current Divider Current CircuitsCatalogIntroductionⅠ Resistive Voltage Divider CircuitⅡ Resistive Current Divider CircuitⅢ Duality (Electrical Circuits)Ⅳ Frequently Asked Questions about Resistor Voltage Divider and Current Divider Rules and FormulasIn this section, through the discussion of the commonly used resistor series voltage divider circuit and resistors in parallel divider circuit to find their rules. This article contains plenty of equations based on Kirchhoff's current law and Ohm's law for you to master voltage divider and current divider circuits.  A Discussion of the Useful Voltage Divider and Current Divider Circuits.Ⅰ Resistive Voltage Divider CircuitIn electronics, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a passive linear circuit that produces an output voltage that is a fraction of its input voltage. It is a simple circuit which turns a large voltage into a smaller one. The basic voltage divider circuit with two resistors in series as shown in the Figure 2. is analyzed, and some useful formulas are obtained:Figure 2. Basic Voltage Divider CircuitThe following equation is given by Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL):The following equation is given by Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL):Equation of voltage current relation of circuit elements:Substituting the Ohm's law of the resistance element into the KVL equation, the calculation formula for the current i is obtained:Then substitute it into the Ohm's law of the resistance element, the voltage division formula for calculating the resistance voltage is obtained:Generally speaking, when N resistors are connected in series, the voltage on the Kth resistor can be calculated according to the following voltage division formula:The resistor series voltage divider formula shows the relationship between the voltage of a certain resistor and the total voltage. The voltage division formula expresses that the voltage of a resistor is proportional to its resistance value, that is, when the resistance increases, the voltage also increases.According to the voltage reference direction obtained by the above voltage divider circuit formula, it can be seen that it has nothing to do with the selection of the current reference direction. When the reference direction of the voltage variable uk or us involved in the formula changes, a negative sign will appear in the formula.As shown in the Figure 3, find the voltage Uab when R=0Ω, 4Ω, 12Ω, ...∞.Figure 3. Voltage Reference DirectionThe voltage Uac and Ubc can be obtained by using the resistor series voltage divider formula:Substituting the resistance R into the above formula, after obtaining the voltage Ubc, then using KVL to obtain the voltage Uab, the calculation result is as follows:It can be seen from the calculation results that as the resistance R increases, the voltage Ubc gradually decreases, and the voltage Uab changes from negative to positive, indicating that its actual direction will varies with the change of the resistance R.The Figure 4. below shows the dual-supply DC voltage divider circuit. Try to find the range of potential change at point a when the sliding end of the potentiometer moves.Figure 4. Dual-supply DC Voltage Divider CircuitSolution: Replace the two potentials of +12V and -12V with two voltage sources to obtain the circuit shown in Figure 4. (b).When the sliding end of the potentiometer moves to the bottom end, the potential at point a is the same as that at point c:When the sliding end of the potentiometer moves to the top, the potential at point a is the same as that at point b:When the sliding end of the potentiometer gradually moves from bottom to top, the potential at point a will continuously change between -10V to 10V.Here discusses the change law of load current i and voltage u when an actual supply powers to a variable resistor load. As shown in the Figure 5, RL is a variable resistance load, and R0 represents the internal resistance of the power supply:Figure 5. Variable Resistor LoadLoad current i:Among them, k=RL/R0 represents the ratio of the load resistance to the internal resistance of the power supply, and isc=us/R0 represents the current when the load is short-circuited.Load voltage u:Among them, uoc=us represents the voltage when the load is open.Power absorbed by load resistor:When the coefficient k=RL/R0 takes different values, a series of relative values of current, voltage and power are calculated, as shown in the following table:K=RL/R000.20.40.60.81.02.03.04.05.0∞i/isc10.8330.7140.6250.5550.50.3330.250.20.1670u/uoc00.1670.2860.3750.4440.50.6670.750.80.8331p/pimax00.5560.8160.9380.98810.8890.750.640.5560According to the above data, the curve of voltage, current and power changing with load resistance can be drawn, as shown in the Figure 6:They show:1. When the load resistance gradually increases from zero, the load current gradually changes from the maximum value isc=us/R0 to zero. When the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the power supply, the current is equal to half of the maximum value.2. When the load resistance gradually increases from zero, the load voltage gradually increases from zero to the maximum value uoc=us. When the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the power supply, the voltage is equal to half of the maximum value.3. When the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the power supply, the current is equal to half of the maximum value, the voltage is equal to half of the maximum value, and the power absorbed by the load resistance reaches the maximum value, and pmax=0.25uocisc.The non-linear change law of the current when the load resistance changes can be seen from the resistance scale of an ordinary multimeter. The circuit model of a multimeter electric blocking is a series connection of a voltage source and a resistor. When we use a multimeter to measure unknown resistance, we should first short-circuit the multimeter and adjust the zero potentiometer pointer to 0Ω. At this time, the current is the largest and the meter pointer is fully deflected. When the short-circuit wire is removed, the pointer of the multimeter returns to ∞, and the measured current is zero at this time.When the multimeter is connected to the measured resistor, as the resistance value changes, the current of the meter head will change accordingly, the pointer will be deflected to the corresponding position, and the measured resistance value can be directly read according to the scale on the surface. There is a special case, when the measured resistance value is just equal to the internal resistance of the multimeter, the current is half of the full deflection current, and the pointer stays in the middle position. Conversely, the internal resistance can be known from the reading in the middle of the multimeter’s electrical barrier scale. For example, the reading of a 500-type multimeter when the pointer stays in the middle position is 10, the internal resistance when using a ×1k electrical barrier is 10kΩ, and the internal resistance is 1kΩ when using a ×100 electrical barrier. If necessary, use Voltage Divider Calculator to calculate the output voltage of a resistor divider circuit for a given set of resistor values and source voltage. Ⅱ Resistive Current Divider CircuitA current divider is defined as a linear circuit that produces an output current that is a fraction of its input current. The following formula describing a current divider is similar in form to that for the voltage divider. The Figure 7. shows a circuit in which a current source supplies power to two parallel resistors, and some useful formulas are drawn from its analysis. Figure 7. Resistive Current Divider CircuitThe following equation is given by Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL):The following equation is given by Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL):Equation of current voltage relation of circuit elements:Substituting the Ohm's law of the resistance element into the KCL equation, the calculation formula for the voltage u is obtained:Then substitute Ohm's law into the resistive current divider equation for calculating the resistor current:The resistive current divider formula of two parallel resistors expressed by resistance parameters is:Generally speaking, when n resistors are connected in parallel, the current on the Kth resistor can be calculated according to the following formula:The resistive current divider in parallel formula indicates the relationship between the current of a resistor and the total current. It shows that the resistance current is proportional to its conductance value. For example, the current will increases when the conductance increases.According to the current reference direction obtained by the above formula, it can be seen that it has nothing to do with the selection of the voltage reference direction. When the reference direction of the current is or ik changes, a negative sign will appear in the formula.Figure 8. Resistive Divider CircuitAccording to the characteristics of two resistors in parallel, the current in the 3Ω and 6Ω resistors is obtained:Then, the current in the 12Ω and 6Ω resistors is obtained:Calculate the current i5 in the short-circuit line according to the KCL equation of node a:i5 can also be calculated according to the KCL equation of node b:It should be noted that the current i5=1A in the short circuit is different from the total current.  If necessary, the Current Divider Calculator can be used to determine the current going through any branch in a parallel circuit. Enter a current source and resistance values to calculate the current through each resistor. The calculator will display the current through each resistor entered. Ⅲ Duality (Electrical Circuits)According to the above-mentioned analysis of the resistive voltage divider circuit and current divider circuit, there is a certain similarity between them.Figure 9. Duality Circuit ExamplesThe equations of the resistor divider circuit are listed as follows:It can be seen that the equations of these two circuits have a dual relationship. If the current i in the KCL equation of a certain circuit is replaced with the voltage u, the KVL equation of another circuit is obtained; the voltage u in the KVL equation of a certain circuit is replaced with the current i, and the KCL equation of another circuit is obtained. This similar relationship in circuit structure is called topological duality. Similarly, replace u in the VCR equation of a certain circuit with i, i with u, R with G, G with R, etc., you can get the VCR equation of another circuit. This similar relationship of the element VCR equation is called element duality. If two circuits are both topological duality and component duality, they are called dual circuits.The circuit equations of the dual circuit are dual, and the various formulas and results derived therefrom are also dual. For example, the dual formula derived for the dual circuit of Figure 9 (a) and (b) is as follows:This section is a simple analysis of dual circuits, dual formulas, dual theorems and dual analysis methods in order to better grasp the basic concepts of circuit theory and various analysis methods. Here are a few test questions that can be used to test how well you learn about voltage divider and current divider circuits:1) Find the voltages u1 and u2 in the circuit shown in the following figure:2) Find the current i1 and i2 in the circuit shown in the following figure:3) Find the current i2, is and voltage u in the circuit shown in the following figure: Ⅳ Frequently Asked Questions about Resistor Voltage Divider and Current Divider Rules and Formulas1. What is VDR and CDR?The Voltage Divider Rule formula (VDR) shows how the voltage distributes among different resistors in a series circuit. Similarly, the Current Divider Rule formula (CDR) shows how current distributes in a parallel circuit. 2. What is the current divider rule with examples?When two resistors are connected in a parallel circuit, the current in any branches will be a fraction of the total current (IT)). If both the resistors are of equal value, then the current will divide equally through both the branches. 3. Why does a voltage divider need two resistors?One resistor can be used to drop voltage (if the load draws current) but to divide voltage you need something to create a division ratio. To be a voltage divider the output voltage needs to be a constant proportion of the input voltage. ... Note that this need for two resistors only applies to DC. 4. Where are current divider used?By using a current divider, the current flowing through a component can be minimized and thus smaller component size can be used. For example, in a case where larger resistor wattage is required; adding multiple resistors in parallel decreases the heat dissipation, and smaller wattage resistors can do the same job. 5. What is voltage divider formula?A voltage divider is applying a voltage across a series of two resistors. We may draw in a few different ways, but they should always essentially be the same circuit. Thus formula is given as follows: V_{out} = \frac{R_b}{R_a+R_b} \times V_{in}

IntroductionAn analog-to-digital converter, or A/D converter, or ADC for short, usually refers to an electronic device that converts an analog signal into a digital signal. Except for the most specialized analog-to-digital converters, all ADCs are implemented as integrated circuits (ICs). These are usually mixed-signal integrated circuit chips based on metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) that integrate analog and digital circuits.As we all know, ADC is mainly used to the digital acquisition of analog signals for for data processing purposes. The signals around us are generally continuously changing analog quantities, such as light, temperature, speed, pressure, sound, etc. However, most of us use digital equipment. If we want to use and process information easily, it is necessary to convert the analog quantity into a digital quantity and transmit it to the microcontroller or microprocessor. So how is ADC conversion realized? What kind of process is it? Reading the following note, you will definitely have a more comprehensive and systematic understanding of the analog-to-digital converter.What is ADC (Analog to Digital Converter)?CatalogIntroductionⅠ A/D Converter Basic1.1 Analog-to-Digital Converter Definition1.2 Analog to Digital Conversion Steps1.3 Why do We Need Analog-to-Digital Converter?Ⅱ Which A/D Converter is Better?Ⅲ What A/D Converter Includes?Ⅳ A/D Converter Applications and ICs4.1 Analog-to-Digital Converter Applications4.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter IC Modes ExplainedⅠ A/D Converter Basic1.1 Analog-to-Digital Converter DefinitionThe ADC converter is a system that converts analog signals into digital signals. It is a process of filtering, sample-and-hold, quantization and encoding. The analog signal passes band-limited filtering, sample-and-hold circuit, and becomes a ladder-shaped signal, and then passes through the encoder to make each level in the ladder-shaped signal become a binary code. Finally, the analog quantity is converted into a digital quantity and then transmitted to the CPU. That is to say, almost all energized data need ADC conversion. For example, electric energy metering of electric energy meters, weight measurement of electronic scales, temperature measurement of electronic thermometers, and communication fields.1.2 Analog to Digital Conversion StepsThe process of converting analog quantities into digital quantities is called analog-to-digital conversion, abbreviated as A/D, and the circuit that completes this function is called analog-to-digital converter, or ADC for short.Analog-to-Digital Conversion Steps Animation1) Sampling refers to replacing the original continuous signal in time with a sequence of signal samples at regular intervals, that is, discretizing the analog signal in time.2) Quantization uses a limited number of amplitude values to approximate the original continuously changing amplitude value, that is, changing the continuous amplitude of the analog signal into a limited number of discrete values with a certain interval.3) Encoding is based on a certain rule, the quantized value is represented by binary numbers, and then converted into a binary or multi-value digital signal stream. The digital signal obtained in this way can be transmitted through digital lines such as cables, microwave trunk lines, and satellite channels.The higher the signal frequency, the higher the operating frequency of the A/D circuit. The more digits, the more accurate the restoration accuracy of the signal. The I/O port of the MCU needs program cooperation to complete the A/D conversion. What’s more, the A/D chip can also be used alone to complete the analog-to-digital conversion.1.3 Why do We Need Analog-to-Digital Converter?Computer software, radio, and digital image acquisition all need the assistance of ADC converters, that is, the wave of human digitization has promoted the invention, development and continuous change of ADC converters. In short, the ADC converter plays an important role in human digitization.1) Many recording studios use 24-bit/96 kHz (or higher) pulse code modulation (PCM) or direct stream digital (DSD) recording formats, and then use ADC samples or decimates the signal for digital audio production on discs.2) Use ADC to store or transmit almost any analog signal in digital form. For example, TV tuner cards use fast video analog-to-digital converters. Digital storage oscilloscopes require very fast analog-to-digital converters, and ADCs are also crucial for software-defined radio and its new applications.3) Digital imaging systems usually use analog-to-digital converters to digitize pixels. Some radar systems usually use ADCs to convert signal strength into digital values for subsequent signal processing.4) Certain non-electronic or only partially electronic devices (such as rotary encoders) can also be regarded as analog-to-digital converters.Figure 1. Analog to Digital Conversion Example(Light Signal to Digital Signal) Ⅱ Which A/D Converter is Better?After years of development and continuous technological innovation, ADC converters have developed from Flash ADCs, Successive-Approximation ADCs, Counting/Slope Integration ADCs to sigma-delta (Σ-Δ) ADCs and Pipelined ADCs. They have their own advantages and disadvantages, and they can also meet different requirements.Successive-Approximation ADCs, Counting/Slope Integration ADCs and compression ADCs, etc. are mainly used in low-speed or medium-speed, medium-precision data acquisition and intelligent instruments. Hierarchical and pipelined ADCs are mainly used in high-speed signal processing, fast waveform storage and data recording, etc., such as video signal quantization and high-speed digital communication technology. ∑-△ ADC is mainly used in high-precision data acquisition, especially in electronic measurement fields such as digital sound systems, multimedia, seismic exploration instruments, sonar and so on. Here a brief description of the main ADC types is given below. Successive-Approximation ADCThe successive-approximation ADC is widely used. It includes a comparator, a digital-to-analog converter, a successive-approximation register (SAR) and a control logic unit. It is to continuously compare the sampling input signal with the known voltage. One clock cycle completes the 1-bit conversion, and the N-bit conversion requires N clock cycles. The conversion is completed and the output binary number is output. The resolution and sampling rate of this type ADC are contradictory: when the ADC resolution is low, the sampling rate is high, and if the resolution is to be improved, the sampling rate will be limited.Advantages: when the resolution is lower than 12 bits, the price is cheap, and the sampling rate can reach 1MSPS. Compared with other types, the power consumption is quite low.Disadvantages: In the case of higher than 14-bit resolution, the price is higher. The signal generated by the sensor needs to be conditioned before analog-to-digital conversion, including gain stage and filtering, so that the cost will increase significantly. Counting/Slope Integration ADCsCounting/Slope Integration ADC is also called dual-slope or multi-slope ADC, and its applications are also very wide. It is composed of an analog integrator with an input switch, a comparator and a counting unit. The input analog voltage is converted into a time interval proportional to its average value through two integrations. At the same time, a counter is used to count the clock pulses in this time interval, so as to realize the analog-to-digital conversion. Because the input end applies the integrator, it has a strong ability to suppress the interference of AC noise. For example, for high-frequency noise and fixed low-frequency (50Hz or 60Hz) interference suppression, it is suitable for use in noisy industrial environments. This type ADC is mainly used in low-speed, precision measurement and other fields, such as digital voltmeters.Advantages: High resolution, up to 22 bits; low power consumption and low cost.Disadvantages: The conversion rate is low, 100~300SPS at 12 bits. Parallel ADCsThe main feature of inter ADC is fast speed, which is the fastest of all types. The sampling rate can reach above 1GSPS. However, due to the limitations of power and volume, it is difficult to improve the resolution. The conversion of all bits of the ADC with this structure is completed at the same time, and the conversion time mainly depends on the switching speed of the comparator and the transmission time delay of the encoder. In addition, increasing the output code has little effect on the conversion time, but as the resolution increases, a high-density analog design  requires large number of precision divider resistors and comparator circuits for the conversion. That is to say, the output number is increased by one bit and the number of precision resistors is increased. It is about to double, and the comparator is also approximately doubled.The resolution of the parallel comparison ADC is limited by die size, input capacitance, power, etc. If the accuracy of the parallel comparators does not match, it will also cause static errors and increase the input offset voltage. Sigma-delta (Σ-Δ) ADCsThe Sigma-delta (Σ-Δ) ADC is composed of an integrator, a comparator, a 1-bit DA converter, and a digital filter. In principle, it is similar to the integral type. The input voltage is converted into a time (pulse width) signal and processed by a digital filter to obtain a digital value.Figure 2. Analog to Digital Converter Application ExampleⅢ What A/D Converter Includes?1) Sampling RateThe sampling rate indicates the rate at which the analog signal is converted into a digital signal, which is related to the manufacturing technology of the ADC device and depends on the judgment ability provided by the comparator in the ADC.Generally speaking, the sampling rate and resolution are mutually restrictive. Each time the sampling rate is doubled, the resolution losses 1bit. This is mainly due to the jitter during sampling, that is, aperture jitter or aperture uncertainty. 2) ADC ResolutionThe resolution indicates the number of bits after the analog signal is converted into a digital signal. It directly determines the quantization level of the ADC, that is, the minimum analog signal level value that the ADC can distinguish. Assuming that the ADC's input voltage range is (−V, V) and the resolution is N (bit), then the ADC has a 2N quantization level, so that the quantization level is: ΔV=2V/2N, where ΔV is the conversion accuracy. It can be seen from the above formula that the higher the resolution of the ADC and the smaller the voltage input range, the higher its conversion accuracy. 3) Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the ADC reflects the ratio of the root mean square value of the noise-free signal part generated during the quantization process to the root mean square value of the quantization noise. If the input signal is a normalized sine wave 1/2sin(ωt+ψ), the SNR can be determined by the following formula: Among them, N is the resolution of ADC. It can be seen that the signal-to-noise ratio of the ADC mainly depends on the resolution. Every time the resolution increases by one bit, the SNR will increase by 6dB. However, as the resolution increases, the quantization level of the ADC becomes smaller, and the sampling process is more likely to be disturbed. 4) Effective Number of Bits (ENOB)ENOB is a measure of the dynamic range of an ADC converter. For the actual A/D conversion system, due to the influence of factors such as electrical noise, external interference, and non-linear distortion of analog circuits, it is not enough to measure system performance with ideal resolution. In order to better reflect the system performance, on the basis of the measured SNR, the above factors can be converted into quantization noise to get the ENOB. The calculation formula is as follows: ENOB is based on the equation for an ideal ADC's SNR: SNR = 6.02 × N + 1.76 dB, where N is the ADC's resolution.The difference between ENOB and ADC resolution reflects the degree of decrease in sampling accuracy caused by the decrease in SNR(here SNR caused by the error source). 5) Non-Linearity ErrorNon-linear error is an important accuracy index of the converter, which represents the difference between the actual conversion value of the ADC and the theoretical conversion value. Non-linear errors mainly include two types: Differential Non-Linearity (DNL) errors and Integral Non-Linearity (INL) errors. 6) Inter Modulation Distortion (IMD)When two sinusoidal signals are input to the ADC at the same time, due to the nonlinearity of the device, except the components of these two frequencies, the output spectrum will also produce many distortion products. The resulting distortion is called inter modulation distortion ( IMD, Inter Modulation Distortion), where the value of m+n represents the order of distortion. Among all inter-modulation distortions, the second-order and third-order inter-modulation products are the most important. The former is easily filtered out by a digital filter, while the latter is difficult to filter out. 7) Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)Due to the nonlinearity of the ADC, many high-order harmonics of the input signal appear in the output spectrum. These high-order harmonic components are called harmonic distortion components, and the resulting distortion is called Total Harmonic Distortion. Harmonic distortion and modulation distortion are two different concepts. The former is a distortion of the original signal waveform, even if a single frequency signal passes through the ADC, this phenomenon will occur, while the latter is mutual interference and influence between different frequencies.Figure 3. ADC on the ArduinoⅣ A/D Converter Applications and ICs4.1 Analog-to-Digital Converter ApplicationsMost ADC applications today belong to Four Segments: (a) Data acquisition(b) Precision industrial measurement(c) Voiceband and audio(d) High speed (sampling rates greater than about 5 MSPS)4.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter IC Modes ExplainedThere are many ADC ICs available in the market which can be used along to do conversion. Here lists several ADC ICs and their features and specifications as ADC selection references.⭕AD762116-Bit, 2 LSB INL, 3 MSPS PulSAR® ADC, High sampling rate, Available in a 48-lead LQFP or a 48-lead LFCSP⭕AD764118-Bit, 2 MSPS, Charge Redistribution SAR ADC 16 Bits Resolution with No Missing CodesNo Pipeline Delay ( SAR architecture )Differential Input Range: ±VREF (VREF up to 2.5V)Throughput:  3 MSPS (Wideband Warp and Warp Mode)  2 MSPS (Normal Mode)  1.25 MSPS (Impulse Mode)INL ±2 LSB Max (±30 ppm of FS)SINAD: 89 dB Typ @ 100 kHzTHD: -103 dB Typ @ 100 kHzParallel (16 or 8 bits bus) and Serial 5 V/3.3 V/2.5 V InterfaceSPI®/QSPI™/MICROWIRE™/DSP CompatibleOn-board Low Drift Reference with Buffer and Temperature SensorSingle 2.5 V Supply OperationPower Dissipation: 70 mW Typ @ 3 MSPS With REF18-bit resolution with no missing codes2.5 V internal low drift referenceThroughput:  2 MSPS (Warp mode)  1.5 MSPS (Normal mode)Differential input range: ± VREF (VREF up to 2.5 V)INL: ±2 LSB typicalNo pipeline delay (SAR architecture)Parallel (18-, 16-, or 8-bit bus)Serial 5 V/3.3 V/2.5 V interfaceSPI®/QSPI™/MICROWIRE™/DSP compatibleOn-board low drift reference with buffer and temperature sensor ⭕AD79088-Channel, 1 MSPS, 8-Bit ADC with Sequencer in 20-Lead TSSOP⭕AD79188-Channel, 1 MSPS, 10-Bit ADC with Sequencer in 20-Lead TSSOPFast throughput rate: 1 MSPSSpecified for AVDD of 2.7 V to 5.25 VLow Power:  6.0 mW max at 1 MSPS with 3 V supply  13.5 mW max at 1 MSPS with 5 V supplyEight (single-ended) inputs with sequencerWide input bandwidth: AD7928, 70 dB min SINAD at 50 kHz input frequencyFlexible power/serial clock speed managementNo pipeline delaysHigh speed serial interface SPI®/QSPI™/MICROWIRE™/DSP compatibleFast throughput rate: 1 MSPSSpecified for AVDD of 2.7 V to 5.25 VLow Power:  6.0 mW max at 1 MSPS with 3 V supply  13.5 mW max at 1 MSPS with 5 V supplyEight (single-ended) inputs with sequencerWide input bandwidth: AD7928, 70 dB min SINAD at 50 kHz input frequencyFlexible power/serial clock speed managementNo pipeline delaysHigh speed serial interface SPI®/QSPI™/MICROWIRE™/DSP compatible ⭕AD79288-Channel, 1 MSPS, 12-Bit ADC with Sequencer in 20-Lead TSSOP⭕AD5555Precision DUAL 16-Bit 14-Bit-DACs in Compact TSSOP PackagesFast throughput rate: 1 MSPSSpecified for AVDD of 2.7 V to 5.25 VLow Power:  6.0 mW max at 1 MSPS with 3 V supply  13.5 mW max at 1 MSPS with 5 V supplyEight (single-ended) inputs with sequencerWide input bandwidth: AD7928, 70 dB min SINAD at 50 kHz input frequencyFlexible power/serial clock speed managementNo pipeline delaysHigh speed serial interface SPI®/QSPI™/MICROWIRE™/DSP compatible14-bit resolution±1 LSB DNL monotonic±1 LSB INL2 mA full-scale current ±20%, with VREF = 10 V0.5 μs settling time2Q multiplying reference-input 6.9 MHz BWZero or midscale power-up presetZero or midscale dynamic reset3-wire interfaceCompact TSSOP-16 package ⭕AD823016 V Rail-to-Rail, Zero-Drift, Precision Instrumentation Amplifier⭕AD77993-Channel, Low Noise, Low Power, 24-Bit, Sigma Delta ADC with On-Chip In-AmpResistor programmable gain range: 101 to 1000Supply voltage range: ±4 V to ±8 VRail-to-rail input and outputMaintains performance over −40°C to +125°CExcellent ac and dc performance  110 dB minimum CMR @ 60 Hz, G = 10 to 1000  10 μV maximum offset voltage (RTI, ±5 V operation)  50 nV/°C maximum offset drift  20 ppm maximum gain nonlinearityRMS noise:  27 nV at 4.17 Hz (AD7799)  65 nV at 16.7 Hz (AD7799)  40 nV at 4.17 Hz (AD7798)  85 nV at 16.7 Hz (AD7798)Current: 380 μA typicalPower-down: 1 μA maximumLow noise, programmable gain, instrumentation ampUpdate rate: 4.17 Hz to 470 Hz 3 differential inputsInternal clock oscillatorSimultaneous 50 Hz/60 Hz rejectionReference detectLow-side power switchProgrammable digital outputsBurnout currentsPower supply: 2.7 V to 5.25 V ⭕AD944414-Bit, 80 MSPS A/D Converter⭕AD944514-Bit, 105 MSPS / 125 MSPS A/D Converter80 MSPS guaranteed sampling rate100 dB two-tone SFDR with 69.3 MHz and 70.3 MHz73.1 dB SNR with 70 MHz input97 dBc SFDR with 70 MHz inputExcellent linearity  DNL = ±0.4 LSB typical  INL = ±0.6 LSB typical1.2 W power dissipation3.3 V and 5 V supply operation2.0 V p-p differential full-scale inputLVDS outputs (ANSI-644 compatible)Data format selectOutput clock available125 MSPS guaranteed sampling rate (AD9445BSV-125)100 dB two-tone SFDR with 30 MHz and 31 MHz73.5 dB SNR with 70 MHz input85 dBc SFDR with 225 MHz inputExcellent linearity  DNL = ±0.25 LSB typical  INL = ±0.8 LSB typical2.3 W power dissipation3.3 V and 5 V supply operation2.0 V p-p to 3.2 V p-p differential full-scale inputLVDS outputs (ANSI-644 compatible) or CMOS outputsData format select (Offset Binary or 2’s compliment)Output clock available ⭕AD944616-Bit, 80 MSPS / 100 MSPS A/D Converter⭕AD923512-Bit, 20/40/65 MSPS, 3 V Analog-to-Digital Converter100 MSPS guaranteed sampling rate (AD9446-100)83.6 dBFS SNR with 30 MHz input(3.8 V p-p input, 80 MSPS)82.6 dBFS SNR with 30 MHz input(3.2 V p-p input, 80 MSPS)89 dBc SFDR with 30 MHz input(3.2 V p-p input, 80 MSPS)95 dBFS 2-tone SFDR with 9.8 MHz and10.8 MHz (100 MSPS)l 60 fsec rms jitterExcellent linearity  DNL = DNL = ±0.4 LSB typical  INL = ±3.0 LSB typical2.0 V p-p to 4.0 V p-p differential full-scale inputBuffered analog inputsLVDS outputs (ANSI-644 compatible) or CMOS outputsData format select (offset binary or twos complement)Output clock available3.3 V and 5 V supply operationSingle +3 V Supply Operation (2.7 V to 3.6 V)SNR = 70 dBc to Nyquist at 65 MSPSSFDR = 85 dBc to Nyquist at 65 MSPSLow Power: 300 mW at 65 MSPSOn-Chip Reference and SHADifferential Input with 500 MHz BandwidthDNL of ±0.4 LSBFlexible Analog Input: 1 V p-p to 2 V p-pOffset Binary or Twos Complement Data FormatClock Duty Cycle StabilizerPin out Migration to Either AD9215, AD9236, AD9245 Frequently Asked Questions about Analog to Digital Converter (ADC Basic)1. What is the use of analog to digital converter?Analog-to-digital converters, abbreviated as “ADCs,” work to convert analog (continuous, infinitely variable) signals to digital (discrete-time, discrete-amplitude) signals. In more practical terms, an ADC converts an analog input, such as a microphone collecting sound, into a digital signal. 2. What are the types of analog to digital converters?There are really five major types of ADCs in use today:Successive Approximation (SAR) ADCDelta-sigma (ΔΣ) ADCDual Slope ADCPipelined ADCFlash ADC 3. Which chip is used in analog to digital?An A/D converter is used to convert an analog signal like voltage to digital form so that it can be read and processed by a microcontroller. Some microcontrollers have built-in A/D converters. It is also possible to connect an external A/D converter to any type of microcontroller. 4. Which circuit is used in analog to digital converter?Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) is an electronic integrated circuit used to convert the analog signals such as voltages to digital or binary form consisting of 1s and 0s. Most of the ADCs take a voltage input as 0 to 10V, -5V to +5V, etc., and correspondingly produces digital output as some sort of a binary number.