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In this article, you will learn what is AVR microcontroller, what are its features, how to choose a suitable AVR microcontroller, and how to program AVR microcontroller in software and so on. Catalog I. What is a AVR Microcontroller? II. AVR Microcontroller Features III. Selection of AVR Series Single-chip Microcomputer IV. AVR Microcontroller Application Field V. Introduction to the experimental tools and equipment used in AVR VI. AVR Microcontroller Programming Software FAQ I. What is AVR Microcontroller? AVR microcontroller is an enhanced 8-bit and built-in Flash RISC order set developed by ATMEL. Compared with CISC, RISC is not just to reduce the command simply, but make the structure of the computer more simple and reasonable to improve the speed of the operation. The design absorbs the advantages of the 8051 and PIC microcontroller and has the ability to execute one instruction in a single clock cycle. The speed can reach 1Mips/MHz. AVR microcontrollers are widely used in the outside devices of the computers, industrial real-time control, instrumentation, communication equipment, home appliances, and other fields. This vedio shows you how to build your own AVR development board and how to use it in your projects. The hardware structure of AVR adopts a compromise strategy of 8-bit and 16-bit computer, that is, the local register memory stack (32 register files) and the single high-speed input/output scheme (i.e. input capture register, the output compares matching registers and corresponding control logic) are adopted, improving the execution speed of instruction, overcoming the bottleneck phenomenon, and enhancing the function. At the same time, it reduces the cost of external equipment management, simplifies the hardware structure, and reduces the cost. Therefore, the AVR microcontroller is a high-performance-price single-chip microcomputer, which has achieved an optimized balance in hardware/software development, speed, performance, and cost. The introduction of the AVR microcontroller breaks this old design pattern completely, abolishes the machine cycle, and gives up the complex instruction computer (CISC) to pursue the instruction complete method; Reducing instruction set, taking words as the unit of instruction length, arranging the rich operands and opcodes in one word (the majority of single-cycle instructions in the order set are the same), and the reference period is short and the instruction can be prefetched, realizing flow operation, so you can execute instructions at high speed. Of course, high reliability must be required. II. AVR Microcontroller Features 1. High-quality embedded Flash program memory, can be repeatedly written and erased, supporting ISP and IAP, which is easy to have product debugging, development, production, update. Long service-life EEPROM, can save key data for a long time and avoid power loss. High-capacity RAM in chips supports the development of system programs in high-level languages. 2. High speed, low power consumption, with SLEEP (power saving when sleeping) function. Each instruction can be executed at 50ns/ 20MHz, while power consumption is between l~2.5mA (typical power consumption, when WDT turned off, is 100nA), AVR (with prefetching instruction function) based on Harvard structure concept. That is, there are different memories and buses for program storage and data, when an instruction is executed, the next instruction is pre-removed from the program memory. This allows instructions to be executed within each clock cycle. The AVR microcontroller can operate at a wide voltage (2.7V~5V), has the strong anti-jamming ability, and reduces the general 8-bit computer software anti-interference design and hardware usage. 3. All the I/O lines of the AVR single-chip computer have an adjustable pull-up resistor. The input and output characteristics of parallel I/O port are similar to those of PIC's HI/LOW output and three-state high impedance H1-Z input, also be set similar to the 8051 series of internal high resistance as input function. It can be set as an input/output or can be set as high resistance input initially. So that I/O resources are flexible, powerful, and fully utilized. AVR's I/ O can accurately reflect the input/output of I/O. 4. AVR microcontroller has a variety of independent clock dividers for URAT, IIC, SPI. The Prescaler with up to 10 bits when matching with the 8 / 16-bit timer, can set the frequency division coefficient through software to provide a variety of timing times. The timer/counter (single) in the AVR microcontroller can be counted bidirectionally to form a triangle wave, then matched with the output comparison matching register, the output PWM of pulse width modulation with variable duty cycle, variable frequency, and variable phase square wave is generated. 5. For industrial products, with high current (irrigation current) lO=20mA~40mA (single output), can directly drive SSR or the relay. The built-in watchdog timer (WDT) is used to avoid the faulty program and improve the anti-interference ability of the product. 6. Superfunctional streamlined instruction. There are 32 general working registers (equivalent to 32 accumulators in 8051 single-chip computers), which overcomes the data processing problems caused by the single accumulator. 7. AVR microcontroller has analog comparator, I/O port can be used for A/D conversion, can form cheap A/D converter. 8. Byte-oriented high-speed hardware serial interface TWI and SPI. TWI is compatible with the I2C interface, with ACK signal hardware transmission and recognition, address recognition, bus arbitration, and other functions, It can realize all four kinds of multi-machine communication from one to another. SPI has the same function. It also looks like the 8051, AVR has multiple fixed interrupt vector entry addresses, so it can respond to interrupts quickly, and it will interrupt like PIC at the same vector address. 9. AVR microcontroller has an automatic power-up reset circuit, an independent watchdog circuit, low voltage detection circuit BOD, multiple reset sources (automatic up and down reset, external reset, watchdog reset, BOD reset). It can set up a delay operation program after running the system, enhancing the reliability of the system. And meanwhile, the AVR microcomputer has many power-saving sleep modes, wide voltage operation(2.7V-5V), strong anti-interference ability. So it is used widely in the electrical industry due to its advantages. 10. Enhanced high-speed synchronous/asynchronous serial port has the functions of generating checking code based on hardware, hardware detecting and debugging, two-stage receiving buffering, baud rate automatically adjusting position (when receiving), shielding data frame, and so on. They improve the reliability of communication and help write the program easily. It also makes up the distributed network and to realize the complex application of multi-computer communication system.  The function of the serial port is much more than the serial port of the MCS-51/96 microcontroller. In addition, the AVR single-chip microcomputer has a high-speed operation, and the interrupt service time is short, therefore, high baud rate communication can be realized. Serial asynchronous communication UART does not occupy timer and SPI transmission function, because of its high speed, it can work in a standard integer frequency, while baud rate can reach 576Ko11, with multi-channel 10-bit AID converter and real-time clock RTC. III. Selection of AVR Series Single-chip Microcomputer AVR microcontroller technology embodies a variety of devices (including FLASH program memory, watchdog, EEPROM, synchronous/asynchronous serial port, TWI/ SPI/ AID/ A/D converter, timer, counter, etc.) and various functions (enhanced reliability of reset system, reduced power-consumption and anti-interference sleep mode, various interrupt systems, timer/counter with input capture and match output, replaceable I/O port. It fully reflects the modern single-chip technology develops into the "on-chip" SoC system. AVR series microcontroller is complete, can be applied to different occasions. In order to make good use of it, it is necessary to know its classification based on different standards and functions. And here are introducing three grades and their models as examples. AVR microcontroller has three grades: Low-grade Tiny series: this type of microcontroller has Less memory, small in size, apt only for simpler applications, the applying model like Tiny11/12/13/15/26/28, etc.; Midrange-grade AT90S series: this microcontroller is used commercially for compound applications, it requires large program memory and also high speed, such as AT90S1200/2313/8515/8535, etc.; High-grade ATmega:  this type of microcontroller is the most popular one which has a good amount of memory up to 256KB, higher built-in peripherals, and fit for modest to difficult applications, the applying model like the ATmega8/16/32/64/128 (storage capacity is 8/16/32/64/128KB) and ATmega8515/8535. AVR device pins range from 8 to 64, with a variety of packages available. IV. AVR Microcontroller Application Field Air conditioning control panel Printer control board(PRCB) Intelligent meter Intelligent flashlight LED control screen Medical equipment GPS  V. Experimental tools and equipment used in AVR IC-CAVR6.31AC Language Compiler Integrated Development Environment(ATMEL AVR Studio) PonyProg2000 Download Software AVR Microcontroller Integrated Test Board AVR-JTAG Simulator Parallel Port Loader High Stability Power Supply Multifunctional TOP2004 USB Programmer PC VI. AVR Microcontroller Programming Software ICCAVR6.31AC Language Compiler ICCAVR6.31A is a C programming language compiler developed by ImageCraft for AVR MCU. It is a pure 32-bit with an integrated development environment, also consists of an editor and project manager. ICCAVR has been widely used because of its powerful function, simple operation, good technical support, and reasonable price. The following figure is the working interface of ICCAVR. AVRStudio Integrated Development Environment AVRStudio is an integrated development environment that integrates project management, program assembly, program debugging, program download, JTAG simulation, and so on. However, AVRStudio does not support the C programming language. Therefore, when we develop an AVR microcontroller with the C programming language, we should first compile the C programming language with ICCAVR, then open the compiled code file with AVRStudio to debug the program. The following figure is the workspace of SVRAStudio. PonyProg2000 software  It is mainly used for AVR MCU and PIC MCU program download, can be used in Windows95/98/ME/NT/20001XP operating systems. The following figure is the working interface of PonyProg2000. Attention Write with PORTx, read with PINx During the experiment, try not to connect the pin directly to the GND/VCC. When it is not set properly, the I/O port will output/fill the high current of 80mA (Vcc=5V), resulting in device damage. As Input 1.The suspension (high resistance state) will be susceptible to interference if the internal pull-up resistor is usually allowed(generally, it seems that 51 has a strong anti-interference ability because 51 always has internal resistance to pull up). 2.Try not to let input suspended or analog input level close to VCC/2, because it will consume too much current, especially in low power applications of CMOS circuits. 3.The pin level provided by the reading software usually requires a clock cycle interval between the assignment instruction “out” and the read instruction “in”, such as the nop order. 4.The input of the functional module (interrupt, timer) can be triggered by a low level, also it can be the rising edge trigger or the falling edge trigger. 5.For high-resistance analog signal input, remember not to allow internal pull-up resistor to affect accuracy, such as ADC digital-analog converter input, analog comparator input, and so on. As Output Taking the necessary current limiting measures, for example, drive the LED to serialize the current-limiting resistor. Reset The internal pull-up resistor will be disabled when to reset. If strict level control is required in an application, such as motor control, it is necessary to use an external resistor to fix the level. Dormant As output, it is still in the same state Input is generally invalid, but the input function is valid if the second function is interrupted. For example, the wake-up function of an external interrupt FAQ 1. What is meant by AVR microcontroller? AVR is a family of microcontrollers developed since 1996 by Atmel, acquired by Microchip Technology in 2016. These are modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC single-chip microcontrollers. AVR was one of the first microcontroller families to use on-chip flash memory for program storage, as opposed to one-time programmable ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM used by other microcontrollers at the time. 2. How does AVR microcontroller work? AVR is an 8-bit microcontroller belonging to the family of Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC). In RISC architecture the instruction set of the computer are not only fewer in number but also simpler and faster in operation. ... The input/output registers available are of 8-bits. 3. What does AVR stand for in electronics? An automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is an electronic device that maintains a constant voltage level to electrical equipment on the same load. 4. What are the types of AVR? In general, there are two types of an Automatic Voltage Regulator. One is the Relay Type and the other is the Servo Motor type. A Relay type AVR makes use of electronic circuitry like relays and semi-conductors to regulate the voltage. 5. Is Arduino AVR or ARM? Arduino uses AVR- or ARM-based microcontrollers, depending on board. PIC is the oldest of the lot. There's no such thing as an “Arduino microcontroller”. 6. What is full form of AVR? The Full form of AVR is Aortic Valve Replacement. An AVR is a type of open heart surgery used to treat problems with the heart's aortic valve. 7. What happens if AVR fails? When AVR fails a protection called Field Failure protection will come into picture and trip the generator. ... If Failure of field is associated with under voltage which might happen due to severe fault near the generator and AVR might trip not able to maintain the voltage, the generator is tripped instantaneously. 8. What is AVR and ARM? ARM is a microprocessor or CPU architecture while AVR is a microcontroller. ARM can be used similar to a microcontroller when combined with ROM, RAM and other peripherals to a single chip like LPC2148. ... Microcontroller has build in RAM, ROM and other peripherals in a single chip. While microprocessor has only the CPU. 9. What are the applications of AVR and ARM? AVR and ARM comes under the family of micro-controller. But ARM can be used as both Microcontroller or as Microprocessor. ARM micro-controller and AVR micro-controller differs from each other in terms of different architecture and different sets of instruction, speed, cast, Memory, Power Consumption, Bus Width etc. 10. What is AVR microcontroller architecture? AVR is a 8-bit RISC architecture (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) microcontroller in market since 1996 which is having on-chip programmable flash memory, SRAM, IO data space & EEPROM. AVR is the first MCU in market which has on-chip flash storage. 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Introduction How to Read an Electrical Diagram Lesson What is a circuit Diagram? Circuit diagram is the basic of engineering research and planning. A schematic layout diagram, which is drawn with the standard symbol of physical electricity, can show the working principle of each component and device relationship, Each electronic component has a symbol. After seeing a few circuit diagrams, you’ll quickly learn how to distinguish the different symbols, and provide planning plan for installing electrons or electrical products. Circuit diagram is one of the basic skills that must be learned by electronic engineers. So this paper gathers the classical circuit materials related to regulated voltage power supply, DCDC conversion power supply, switching power supply, charging circuit, constant current source to provide the most practical circuit diagram reference for engineers. Schematic Symbols Basic Devices   A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses.   An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. An inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil around a core.     An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric cars.[1] When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.[2] The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal.       A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.           Five Parts to Understand Circuit Diagrams *Regulated Power Supply 1. The voltage adjustable range is between 3.5V~25V, the output current is large, using VR- tube circuit to obtain the stable output voltage. Working principle: after rectifying and filtering, DC voltage is supplied by R1 to the base of the adjusting tube, so that the adjusting tube can be switched on. When the voltage passes through the RP, R2 of the V1 conduction, V2 switched on, and then V3 is switched on. At this time, the emitter and collector voltage of V1, V2 and V3 do not change (it acts exactly like a voltage stabilizer). A stable output voltage can be obtained by adjusting RP, and the ratio of R1, PR, R2 to R3 determines the output voltage of the circuit. T: 80W～100W     Input: AC220VOutput Duplex Winding: AC28VRP: 1W (resistance: 250K～330K)FU1: 1A                FU2: 3A~5A VD1 | VD2: 6A02C4: 470µF/35V(electrolytic capacitor)C1: 3300µF / 35VC2 | C3: 0.1µF (MONO CAP)R1: 180～220Ω / 0.1W～1W     Fig 1. VR-tube Circuit 2. Regulated Voltage Adjustable Power Supply Circuit Diagram Whether the computer detection or electronic product can not be separated from the regulated power supply(RPS). This paper introduces one kind of RPS: a DC voltage continuously adjustable from 3V to 15V, the maximum current can be up to 10A, and the circuit uses a high precision standard voltage source integrated circuit (TL431) with temperature compensation which makes the voltage stabilizer more accurate. If there is no special requirement, it can basically meet the normal maintenance. The circuit is shown in the figure below. Fig 2. Regulated Voltage Adjustable Power Supply Circuit Diagram Its working principle is divided into two parts. The first part is a fixed 5V/1.5A power supply circuit; the second part is a high precision and large current regulator circuit which can be adjusted continuously from 3V to 15V. The first circuit is very simple. The DC voltage rectified by silicon bridge QL1 is filtered by C1 from the secondary 8V AC voltage of transformer, then the 5V three-terminal stabilizer block LM7805 can produce a fixed 5V | 1A power supply at the output end without any adjustment. This power supply can be used as an internal power source when the computer board is overhauled. The second part is basically the same as the common series power supply. The circuit is simple, the cost is low, but the voltage stabilizer performance is very high. The resistor R4, the regulator TL431, potentiometer R3 constitutes a continuously adjustable constant voltage source, which provides the reference voltage for the BG2 base. The regulated voltage value of the regulator TL431 is continuously adjustable, which determines the maximum output voltage of the power supply. If you want to expand the range of adjustable voltage, you can change the resistance values of R4 and R3, of course, the secondary voltage of transformer should also be increased. The power of the transformer can be controlled flexibly according to the output current, and the secondary voltage is about 15 V. Bridge rectifier QL, using 15A-20A silicon bridge, compact structure, fixed screws in the middle, can be directly fixed on the shell aluminum plate, better for heat sink. What adjusts the tube is the high current NPN metal shell silicon tube, because it has the very big heat, if the chassis allows, buying the big radiator as far as possible to expand the heat dissipation area; if does not need the big current, a smaller power silicon tube can be used to makes it smaller. The filter uses three 50V/4700uF electrolytic capacitance C5 and C7 in parallel, respectively, to make the output of large current more stable. In addition, this capacitor should be bought with a relatively larger volume, and those smaller ones will also mark 50V/4700uF, but the voltage fluctuates frequently, Or easy to fail for a long time lay idle. Finally, the power transformer can buy a ready-made switching power supply of more than 200W instead of the transformer. In this way, the voltage stability can be further improved, but the manufacturing cost is not too high, and other electronic components have no special requirements. After installation is completed, it can work properly without too much adjustment.   *Switched Power Supply(specific examples) The working principle of integrated control IC-UC3842 for PWM switching power supply The following is the UC3842 internal block diagram and pin diagram. UC3842 uses a fixed frequency pulse width controllable modulation mode, a total of 8 pins, each foot function as follows: Pin① is the output of the error amplifier, and the external resistor-capacitor unit is used to improve the gain and frequency characteristics of the error amplifier; Pin② is the feedback voltage input, which is compared with the 2.5 V reference voltage at the same phase of the error amplifier to generate the error voltage, thus controlling the pulse width; Pin③ is the current detection input, when detecting voltage exceeds 1V, the pulse width is reduced so that the power supply is in the state of intermittent operation; Pin④ is the timing end, the operating frequency of the internal oscillator is determined by the external resistor-capacitor time constant, f=1.8 / (RT×CT); Pin⑤ is the common ground; Pin⑦ is a DC power supply terminal with the function of undervoltage and overvoltage locking, the chip power consumption is 15mW. Pin⑧ is the output terminal of 5V reference voltage, its load capacity is 50mA. Fig 3. IC-UC3842 Electrical Diagram   UC3842 Internal Schematic Diagram UC3842 is an integrated controller of PWM switching power supply with excellent performance, wide application and simple structure. Because it has only one output, it is mainly used for voice control. The UC3842 pin7 is a voltage input with a starting voltage range of 16V-34V. When the power supply is on, the VCC is less than 16V, and the output of the Schmidt comparator is 0. At the same time, no reference voltage is generated and the circuit does not work. When Vcc > 16V, the input voltage Schmidt comparator sends out a high voltage to the 5V fern voltage regulator, which generates a 5V reference voltage. On the one hand, this voltage used in internal circuit; on the other hand, it provides a reference voltage to the outside through pin8. Once the Schmidt comparator flips to a high level (when the chip starts working), Vcc can change in the 10V-34V range without affecting circuit; when the Vcc is below 10V, the Schmidt comparator flips to a low level and the circuit stops working. When the reference voltage stabilizer has a 5V reference voltage output, the reference voltage detection logic comparator outputs a high level signal to the output circuit. At the same time, the oscillator will generate the oscillation signal of the f=Rt/Ct according to the parameters of the pin④ external Rt and Ct, which is added directly to the input of the totem pole circuit, the other is added to the position end of RS flip-flop made by PWM pulse width modulator, and the output end of R connects the output of current-detection comparator. The R-terminal is the control end of the duty ratio. When the R voltage rises, the Q pulse is widened. At the same time, the pulse width of pin⑥ is widened (duty cycle increased); when the R voltage drops, The Q pulse narrows and the pin⑥ pulse width becomes narrow (duty cycle reduced). The sequence of UC3842 points is as shown in the diagram. Only when the E point is in high level, and meanwhile, a point and b point is all in high level, the d point sends out the high level, the c point sends the low level, otherwise the d point sends the low level, c point sends out the high level. Pin② generally connects the feedback signal. When the pin②voltage increases, the pin① voltage will decrease, and the R-terminal voltage will also decrease, so the pin⑥ pulse will narrow, on the contrary, the pin⑥ pulse will become wider. Pin③ is a current sensing terminal. Usually, a small sample resistor is inserted into the source or emitter of the power transistor to convert the current passing through the switch to a voltage, and the voltage is introduced into the pin. When the load short circuit or other reasons cause the current of the power transistor to increase and the voltage on the sampling resistance exceeds 1V, the pulse output pin⑥ is stopped, which can effectively protect the power transistor from damage. Fig 4. UC3842 Internal Schematic Diagram TOP224P 12V | 20W Switching DC Power Supply Circuit Based on Regulated Voltage Two integrated circuits are used in the circuit: TOP224P three-terminal monolithic switching power supply (IC1) and PC817A linear optical coupler (IC2). After UR and Cl rectifier filter, AC power supply produces DC high voltage Ui, to supply primary winding of high frequency transformer T. VDz1 and VD1 can clamp the peak voltage of leakage inductance to the safe value and can attenuate the ringing voltage. VDz1 adopts P6KE200 type transient voltage suppressor with reverse breakdown voltage 200V, and VDl uses UF4005 type UFRD in 1A/600V. The secondary winding voltage is filtered by V, C2, L1 and C3 rectifier, getting 12V output voltage Uo. Uo value is set by the sum of the forward voltage drop UF, R1 of LED and the value of regulated voltage Uz2. Other output voltage values can be obtained by changing the turn ratio of high frequency transformer and the regulated voltage value of VDz2. R2 and VDz2 also provide a false load for 12V output to improve the load adjustment rate at light load. The feedback winding voltage is filtered by VD3 and C4 rectifier to supply the bias voltage required by TOP224P. Since the control current is regulated by R2 and VDz2, the output duty cycle is changed to stabilize the voltage. The common mode choke L2 can reduce the common mode leakage current generated by the waveform of the high voltage switch connected to the D by the primary winding. C7 is a protective capacitor used to filter out interference caused by coupling capacitors of primary and secondary windings. C6 can reduce the differential mode leakage current caused by the fundamental and harmonic waves of the primary winding current. C5 can not only filter the peak current added to the control terminal, but also determine the self-starting frequency, compensating the control loop with R1 and R3. Fig 5. TOP224P 12V | 20W Switching DC Power Supply Circuit The Main Technical Specifications of This Power Supply are as Follows AC Voltage: u=85～265V Voltage Regulation: η=78％ Grid Frequency: fLl=47～440Hz Input Voltage (Io=1.67A): Uo=12V Working Temperature: TA=0～50℃ Maximum Output Current: IOM=1.67A Maximum Output Ripple Voltage: ±60mV Continuous Power Output: Po=20W /TA=25℃ or 15W /TA=50℃）   *DC-DC Power Supply 3V→+5V or +12V Circuit Portable electronic products powered by batteries generally use low power supply voltage, which can reduce the number of batteries and product size. In order to ensure the stability and accuracy of the circuit, it is necessary to use a regulated power supply. If the circuit uses 5V working voltage, but one component requires a higher working voltage, this often makes the designer feeling hard. In this paper, a circuit composed of two booster modules is introduced to solve this problem, and only two batteries are used to supply power. The circuit has fewer components, small size, light weight, stable output of 5V or 12V, and meets the requirements of portable electronic products. +5V power supply can output 60mA, and +12 V power supply maximum output current is 5 mA. Fig 6. 3V→+5V or +12V Circuit The circuit is shown above. It is composed of AH805 and FP106 booster module. AH805 is a kind of boost module with an input of 1.2V~3V and an output of 5V, which can output 100mA current at 3V. FP106 is a chip boost module with input of 4V~6V and output fixed voltage of 29 ±1V, the output current up to 40 mA.  AH805 and FP106 are both a level-controlled to shut down the power. The output voltage of two 1.5V alkaline batteries is 3V, inputting to the AH805, and its output voltage is 5V, inputting 5V to the FP106, and the output voltage is 28V~30V, and then the output voltage is 12 V after through the voltage stabilizer. It can be seen from the diagram that different output voltages can be obtained by changing the stabilizer voltage. Pin⑤ of FP106 is the closing end of controlling the power supply. When Pin⑤ is added a high level > 2.5V, the power supply is switched on; When adding the low level is less than 0.4V, the power supply is off. It can be controlled by circuit or manually. If it is not necessary, Pin⑤ is connected to Pin⑧. MC34063 3.6V→9V Circuit Working State: No-load: Output 3.65V| 18uA  Load: Output 9.88V | 50.2mA; Input 3.65V | 186.7mA, efficiency 72% Working Principle: When there is no load, the IC has no power on pin⑥ and stops working. The input current is only 18uA with input 3.65V. When there is a load (Q1 has Ieb current), the EC pole of 8550 is switched on and the IC is operating. Whether the IC works is determined by whether there is a load or not, it is quite a battery. Using IC has a high voltage conversion efficiency and output stably. If this circuit adds a point of improvement, for example, when increasing power, it can turn into a power supply from 4.2V to 5V without switch. You can use a battery box as a backup power source for your phone. Fig 7. MC34063 3.6V→9V Circuit   *Charging Circuit lm358 basic Battery Charger Circuit Diagram Fig 8. lm358 basic Battery Charger Circuit Diagram There are two different arguments about whether alkaline batteries can be recharged. Some can be filled; the other say it has a risk of explosion. In fact, alkaline batteries can be rechargeable, generally 30-50 times of its service life. In fact, due to the charging methods, there are two different consequences. First of all, there is no doubt that alkaline batteries can be rechargeable, and in the battery instructions, it is mentioned that alkaline batteries are not rechargeable and that charging can lead to explosions. That's true, but note that the word is "could". Actually, it can be viewed as a manufacturer's self-protection statement of exemption. The key to charging alkaline batteries is temperature. As long as you can charge the battery without high temperature, you can successfully do it. The right charging method requires several points: small current: 50mA  charge 1.7V  discharge 1.3V After some people tried charging practice, they said categorically that they could not recharge. The reason for the problems such as lack of charging, short electricity consumption, leakage, explosion, actually, most are charger problems. If the charging current of the charger is too large, far more than 50 ma, and some fast chargers is above 200ma, the direct result is that the temperature of the battery is very high. If the battery is hot, the batteries will leak, and the serious will explode. Some people use Ni-MH rechargeable battery charger to charge, low grade charger does not automatically stop charging function, after long time charging will lead to overcharge then causing battery leakage and explosion. A better charger has the function of automatic shutdown, but the stop charge voltage is generally set to 1.42 V of the Ni-MH rechargeable battery, while the voltage of the alkaline battery is about 1.7V when it fully charged. As a result, the voltage is too low which causing fake charge. And not to wait until the battery is completely out of power to charge, it will lead to poor lifetime of the battery. It is recommended that the voltage of alkaline battery is not less than 1.3V. Therefore, if you plan to charge the alkaline battery, you must have a qualified charger, charging current around 50mA, and charging cut-off voltage is about 1.7V.   Related Description Alkaline manganese rechargeable battery: based on alkaline zinc manganese battery, it is also called mercury-free alkaline manganese battery because of the use of mercury-free zinc powder and new additives. The battery can be recharged for dozens to hundreds of times without changing the discharge characteristics of the alkaline battery, which is more economical. Alkaline zinc-manganese battery was developed in 1882. It was developed in 1912 and put into production in 1949. It has been found that when KOH electrolyte solution replaces NH4Cl as electrolyte, both the electrolyte and the structure change greatly, its performance improved significantly. Features Open voltage is 1.5V Working temperature is between -20℃ to 60℃, it is suitable in alpine region. The capacity of high current continuous discharge is about 5 times that of acid zinc-manganese battery. 2.75W USB Charger This design adopts Power Integrations's LinkSwitch series product LNK613DG. This design is well suited for mobile phones or similar USB charger applications, including mobile phone battery chargers, USB chargers, or any application with constant voltage or constant current. In the circuit, the diode D1 to D4 rectifies the AC input, and the capacitors C1 and C2 filter the DC. The L1, C1 and C2 form a π type filter to attenuate the differential mode conduction EMI noise. These are connected by E-sheild technology of Power Integrations transformers. This design can easily meet the requirements of EN55022 B-type conduction EMI with sufficient margin, and no Y capacitor is required. Fire proof, fusible, winding resistor RF1 provides fault protection and limits surge current generated during startup. Fig 9. 2.75W USB Charger Circuit Fig 9 shows that U1 is powered by optional offset power, which reduces no-load power to less than 40 mW. The value of by-pass capacitance C4 determines the number of cable voltage drop compensation. The value of 1μF corresponds to the compensation of a 0.3Ω / 24 AWG USB output cable. (10μF capacitance compensates 0.49 Ω / 26 AWG USB output cable.). In the constant voltage stage, the output voltage is regulated by switch control. The output voltage is maintained by skipping the switching cycle. By adjusting the ratio of the prohibition period to maintain voltage regularly. This also optimizes the efficiency of the converter throughout the load range. Under the condition of light load (trickle charge), the current limit will be decreased to reduce the magnetic flux density of the transformer, thus reducing the audio noise and switching loss. With the increase of load current, the current limit will increase, and the skipping period will be reduced continuously. When no longer skipping any switching period (maximum power point), the controller in the LinkSwitch-II switches to constant current mode. When the load current needs to be further increased, the output voltage will decrease, and it reflects in the FB pin voltage. In response to the voltage drop of the FB pin, the switching frequency will decrease linearly to achieve constant current output. The RCD-R clamping circuit is composed of D5, R2, R3 and C3, which is used to limit the leakage voltage spike caused by leakage inductance. Resistance R3 has a relatively large value to avoid drain voltage waveform oscillations caused by leakage inductance, which prevents excessive oscillation during turn-off, thus reducing EMI conduction. Diode D7 rectifies secondary and C7 filters it. C6 and R7 together limit the transient voltage spike on D7 and reduce EMI conduction and radiation. The resistor R8 and Zener diode VR1 form an false output load which ensures that the output voltage is within an acceptable limit and that the battery does not discharge completely when the charger is off. Feedback resistors R5 and R6 set maximum operating frequency and output voltage at constant voltage stage.   *Constant-Current Source 1. Discussion on How to Design Three-wire Constant Current Source Driving Circuit The constant current source drive circuit is responsible for driving the temperature sensor Pt1000, to convert its sensing resistive signal with temperature into measurable voltage signal. In this system, the required constant current source should have good temperature stability, large output resistance, output current less than 0.5mA (upper limit of Pt1000 without self-heating effect), earthing at one end of load, and variable polarity of output current. Because the influence of temperature on the parameters of integrated operational amplifier is less significant than of the transistor or FET, the constant current source composed of integrated operational amplifier has the advantages of better stability and higher constant current performance. Especially in the case where one end of the load needs grounding, it has been widely used. So use the dual operational amplifier constant current source shown in figure 2. Amplifier UA1 is used as adder, UA2 as follower, UA1 and UA2 are gain bipolar operational amplifier OP07,  which having low noise, low misalignment and high open-loop. Fig 10. Three-wire Constant Current Source Driving Circuit Vb and Va are the up and down potential of the reference resistor Rref in figure 2: Va is the output of in-phase adder UA1. When taking the resistor R1= R2 , R3=R4, the output current of the Va=VREFx+Vb. It can be seen that the dual operational amplifier constant-current source has the following remarkable characteristics: Load earthing The output current is bipolar when the operational amplifier is supplied by a dual power source. The constant current can be achieved by changing the input reference VREF or adjusting the reference resistor Rref0. It is easy to obtain stable small current and compensation calibration. Because of the mismatch of the resistor, the voltage at both ends of the reference resistance Rref0 will be affected by the terminal voltage Vb of its driving load. At the same time, as a constant current source, Vb will definitely change with the load, which will affect the stability of the constant current source. Therefore, the four resistors R1, R2, R3, R4 are chosen according to the principle that the mismatch should be as small as possible, in addition, the mismatch direction of each pair of resistors should be consistent. In practice, a large number of precision resistors of the same batch can be screened, and 4 resistors with close resistance values can be selected. 2. High Voltage Constant Current Source Circuit Diagram(switch power model) The instrument needs a constant current source that can generate 1mA current on 0 to 3 megabytes ohmic resistance. A design composed with 12V storage battery and UC3845 has be made: the transformer uses a color TV high voltage packet, in which L1 enamelled wire is wound 24 turns on the core of the original high voltage package; L3 uses a coil of the original high voltage package and L2 with the high voltage part of the high voltage packet; L3 and LM393 constitute a voltage limiting circuit which limits the output voltage too high and adjusts the open-circuit output voltage by adjusting R10. Fig 11. High Voltage Constant Current Source Circuit Diagram(switch power model) You May Also Like Filtering Circuit Tutorial (Schematic Diagrams) Switch Mode Power Supply Circuit Design Tutorial Selection Guidance of Five Main Materials for Flexible Circuit Board Production Recommendation MC34063A SOP8 LM7805A UC3842AD   FAQ 1. What are the basic elements of electronics?When building electronic circuits, you will work with a number of basic electronic components, including resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, inductors and integrated circuits.   2. What is the schematic symbol represented in the electrical and electronic diagram?It is also called a schematic symbol. Each component has typical functionality according to its operational characteristics. An electronic circuit or schematic drawing uses a wired path between electronic components to complete the circuit. These components are represented by respective symbols for it.   3. What are the 5 components of electricity?The Basics of Electrical ComponentsResistors. The very first component that you should know about is the resistor.CapacitorsLight Emitting Diode (LED)TransistorsInductorsIntegrated Circuit (IC)   4. What are the types of electronics?Electronics has branches as follows:Digital electronicsAnalogue electronicsMicroelectronicsCircuit designIntegrated circuitsPower electronicsOptoelectronicsSemiconductor devices   5. What are the different schematic symbols?Schematic Symbols:Wires (Connected)Wires (Not Connected)DC Supply VoltageGroundNo Connection (nc)ResistorCapacitor, Polarized (Electrolytic)Light-Emitting Diode (LED)   6. What are the electrical diagrams?Image result for Electrical DiagramElectrical diagrams are drawings which are used to represent electrical circuits, these circuits are represented by using lines, symbols, and number combinations. Electrical diagrams show the wiring between components and the relative position of the components.   7. What are the three types of electrical diagrams?There are three ways to show electrical circuits. They are wiring, schematic, and pictorial diagrams. The two most commonly used are the wiring diagram and the schematic diagram.    8. What are the four types of electrical diagram?Image result for Electrical DiagramSome of these electrical drawings or diagrams have been described below.Block DiagramSchematics Circuit DiagramSingle Line Diagram or One-line DiagramWiring DiagramPictorial DiagramLadder Diagram or Line DiagramLogic DiagramRiser Diagram   9. What are the 2 main types of electricity?Current electricity is a constant flow of electrons. There are two kinds of current electricity: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC).   10. What are the 2 types of electric circuit?Types of Electric CircuitsThere are two types of circuits found in homes and other common devices; namely series circuits and parallel circuits.   11. What is electrical block diagram?Block Diagram – A block diagram shows the major components of electrical or mechanical interrelations in block, or square or rectangular, form. The lines between the blocks represent the connections between the systems or components.   12. What are the 4 basic components of a circuit?Every electric circuit, regardless of where it is or how large or small it is, has four basic parts: an energy source (AC or DC), a conductor (wire), an electrical load (device), and at least one controller (switch). Visualize what happens when you switch on a room light.   13. What is type of wiring diagram?Schematic Diagrams often called a ladder diagram, is intended to be the simplest form of an electrical circuit. This diagram shows the circuit components on horizontal lines without regard to their physical location. It is used for troubleshooting because it is easy to understand the operation of the circuit.   14. What is the main purpose of electrical diagram?Electrical drawings, sometimes referred to as wiring diagrams, are a type of technical drawing that provide visual representation describing electrical systems or circuits. They are used to explain the design to electricians or other workers who will use them to help install or repair electrical systems.   15. Which software is used for electrical design?Top 8 Software For Electrical EngineersAutoCAD ElectricalPLC ProgrammingSCADA SoftwareAC/DC Drive SoftwareProteus And PspiceOrCADXilinxKeil

 The heat sink has a thermal conductor that carries heat away from the device into fins that provide a large surface area for the heat to dissipate throughout the rest of the components, thus cooling both the heat sink and processor. Both a heat sink and a radiator require airflow and, therefore, both have fans built-in. At present, the main failure form of electronic equipment is thermal failure. According to statistics, 55% of failure of electronic equipment is caused by temperature exceeding the rated value. With the increase of temperature, the failure rate of electronic equipment increases exponentially. Therefore, the thermal design of power devices is most important in the structural design of electronic equipment, which directly determines the success of the products. Good thermal design is the basis for the stable and reliable operation of the equipment. Electronics Thermal Heatsink Design Tutorial CatalogI. Main Parameters of Thermal PropertiesII. Thermal Design of Power DeviceIII. Heat Dissipation CalculationIV. Calculation ExampleV. Selection of RadiatorVI. ConclusionFAQ I. Main Parameters of Thermal Properties The thermal stress of the power device can come from the inside of the device or from the outside of the device. If the heat dissipation capacity of the device is limited, the consumption of power will lead to the rise of temperature and junction temperature in the active region of the chip inside the device, reducing the reliability of the device lower and making the device unable to work safely. The main parameters to characterize the thermal capacity of power devices are junction temperature and thermal resistance. The active region of the device can be the PN junction region of the junction device (such as a transistor), the channel region of the field-effect device, the diffused resistor, or the thin film resistance of the integrated circuit, and so on.  When the junction temperature Tj is higher than the ambient temperature Ta, the heat through the temperature difference to form a diffusive heat flow, which is emitted from the chip through the tube shell, and the heat emitted increases with the increase of the temperature difference (Tj-Ta).  In order to ensure that the device can work properly for a long time, an allowable maximum junction temperature Tj max has been made. Tj max is determined by chip materials, packaging materials, and reliability of devices. The heat dissipation ability of power devices is usually characterized by thermal resistance, called Rt. The larger the thermal resistance is, the worse the heat dissipation ability is. Thermal resistance is also divided into internal thermal resistance and external thermal resistance.  Internal thermal resistance is the inherent thermal resistance of the device itself, which is related to the thermal conductivity, thickness, and cross-sectional area of the tube core, shell material, and processing technology, while external thermal resistance is related to the form of tube package. Generally speaking, the larger the shell area, the smaller the external thermal resistance. The external thermal resistance of the metal shell is obviously lower than that of the plastic. When the power consumption reaches a certain level, the junction temperature of the device goes up and the reliability of the system decreases. In order to improve the reliability, the thermal design of the power device should be carried out.  II. Thermal Design of Power Device The thermal design of the power device is mainly to prevent thermal failure caused by overheating or alternating temperature. It can be divided into the thermal design of the internal chip, thermal design of the package, thermal design of the tube, and thermal design in practical use. For general power devices, only the thermal design of the device's interior, package, and the tube should be considered. But when the power consumption is high, the appropriate radiator should be installed, through which the heat can be effectively dissipated to ensure the device works normally and reliably within the safe junction temperature.   III. Heat Dissipation CalculationThe most commonly used heat dissipation method is to install the power device on the radiator, using the radiator to disperse the heat into the surrounding, if necessary, to add the fan to strengthen the heat dissipation with a certain wind speed.  Flow cold water cooling plate is also used in some large power devices, which has a better heat dissipation effect. Heat dissipation calculation is to determine the appropriate heat dissipation measures and radiators through calculation under certain working conditions. There is a certain thermal resistance in the heat transfer process. The thermal resistance from the core of the device to the bottom is Rjc, between the bottom and the radiator is Rcs, a radiator that spreads heat into the surrounding is Rsa, the total resistance is Rja=Rjc+Rcs+Rsa.  If the maximum power loss of the device is Pd, and the permitted junction temperature of the device is Tj, ambient temperature is Ta, the reasonable total thermal resistance Rja can be obtained by the following formula.Rja ≤(Tj-Ta)/Pd The thermal resistance of the maximum allowable Rsa is: Rsa ≤(Tj-Ta)/Pd-(Rjc+Rcs) For design consideration, Tj is generally set to 125℃, Ta=40℃ ~ 60℃ generally used in the case of bad ambient temperature. The size of Rjc depends on the size of the core and the package structure, which can be found from the parameter list. Rcs size depends on the installation technology and device packaging. If the device adopts heat conducting grease or heat transfer pad, installing with the radiator, the typical value of Rcs is 0. 1 ℃/W / ~ 0. 2 ℃/W; If the bottom surface of the device is not insulated and additional mica insulation is required, the Rcs can reach 1 ℃/W. Pd is the maximum power loss calculated according to the working conditions of different devices. In this way, Rsa can be calculated to select an appropriate radiator. IV. Calculation ExampleA power operational amplifier PA02 as low-frequency power amplifier, the device is 8-pin and TO-3 metal shell package. The operating conditions are as follows: the operating voltage Vs is 18 V, the load impedance RL is 4Ω, the ambient temperature is 40 ℃, and the natural cooling is adopted. According to the data of PA02: the typical value of static current Iq is 27mA, the maximum value is 40mA, and the typical value of Rjc (from tube core to shell) is 2.4 ℃/W, and the maximum value is 2.6 ℃/W. The power consumption of the device is Pd=Pdq+ Pdout(Pdq is the internal power consumption and Pdout is the output power consumption). The calculation is as follows: Pdq=Iq(Vs+|-Vs|)  Pdout=Vs2/(4RL)  Iq=37mA                                                                                 Pd=Iq(Vs+|-Vs|)＋Vs2/(4 RL)                                                                                     =0.037×(18+18)＋182/(4×4)                                                                                     =21.6 W Radiator thermal resistance: Rsa ≤(Tj-Ta)/Pd-(Rjc+Rcs) Tj=125℃, Ta=40℃, Rjc=2.6℃/W, Rcs=0.2℃/W(PA02 installed directly on radiator with heat conductive grease in the middle) Substitute the above data into the formula to get Rsa≤ (125-40)/21.6-(2.6+0.2)≤ 1.135℃/W The thermal resistance HSO4 in natural convection is 0. 95 ℃/W, which can meet the requirement of heat dissipation. V. Selection of RadiatorRadiators are generally standard parts, but also provide customization. The surface of the radiator is treated by electrophoretic coating or black oxygen polarization, which aims to improve heat dissipation and insulation performance.  In natural cooling can be increased by 10%~15%, in ventilation cooling can be increased by 3%, and electrophoretic coating can withstand pressure 500V~800V. The heat resistance of different types of radiators in different heat dissipation conditions is given by the radiator manufacturers. The radiator is used to control the temperature of the power device, especially the junction temperature (Tj), making is lower than the safe junction temperature of the power device, so as to improve the reliability of the power device.  Conventional radiators tend to be standardized, serialized, universal, and new products develop towards low thermal resistance, multifunction, small volume, lightweight, and suitable for automatic production and installation.  The internal thermal resistance of various power devices is different and the difference of contact surface and installation torque will lead to the thermal-resistance difference between the contracts.  The main factor of selecting a radiator is the heat resistance Rtf. Under different environmental conditions, the heat dissipation of power devices is also different. Therefore, environmental factors, the matching between radiator and power device, and the volume and quality of the whole electronic equipment should be taken into account in selecting the appropriate radiator. First of all, according to the performance parameters and environmental parameters of the power device in normal operation, calculate whether the junction temperature of the power device is within the safe condition, determine whether it is necessary to install the radiator, and calculate the corresponding thermal resistance of the radiator if it needs to be installed.  The junction temperature of the power device is recalculated to determine whether the junction temperature of the power device is within the range of safe junction temperature, so as to judge whether the selected radiator meets the requirements. For the radiator that meets the requirements, the optimum design should be carried out according to the actual engineering requirements.   VI. ConclusionThrough the analysis and calculation of the heating principle of the power device, it can guide the design of the heat dissipation mode and the selection of the radiator, ensure the power device work in the safe temperature range, reduce the quality problem, and improve the reliability of the electronic products.  The reliability of electronic equipment is also related to the components, structure, assembly, process, processing quality, and so on. In practical engineering applications, feedback data should be obtained through various tests to perfect the design and further improve the reliability of electronic equipment. FAQ 1. What is a heat sink and how does it work?A heat sink (also commonly spelled heatsink) is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical device to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid coolant, where it is dissipated away from the device, thereby allowing regulation of the device's temperature. 2. What is a heat sink used for?A heat sink is a component that increases the heat flow away from a hot device. It accomplishes this task by increasing the device's working surface area and the amount of low-temperature fluid that moves across its enlarged surface area. 3. Does a heat sink need a fan?Most heatsinks have denser fins, which requires a fan to be mounted directly on the cooler. If your heatsink has heat pipes (copper tubes running through the fins), then it's most likely designed to be used with a fan. It's simple to test whether or not a heatsink can safely be run without a fan on it. 4. What material dissipates heat the best?Thermal conductivity is the measure of a metal's ability to conduct heat. What this means is that that the metal acts to cool temperatures, through a process of dissipation. The metals with the highest thermal conductivity are copper and aluminium. The lowest are steel and bronze. 5. How many types of heat sinks are there?The Two Major Heat Sink Categories. All heat sinks can be broken down into two major categories… active and passive. 6. What is the difference between active and passive heat sinks?An active heat sink has a fan attached to it, to actively pull heat away from the heat sink and chip that lies underneath it. A passive heat sink is just a heat sink, a piece of flat metal with fins on top that directs heat away from the chip set it is installed on. 7. Which is better heat sink or fan?Generally though, with good airflow provided by the fan heatsinks can often be a lot smaller. The only benefit to a heatsink-only arrangement is less noise. ... Out of preference you want the heatsink fins to be standing upwards so that hot air can immediately rise off of it and cool air be pulled in. 8. What is the difference between a heatsink and a CPU fan?The heatsink draws the heat away from the CPU, and the fan ensures a steady stream of air for the heatsink to pass the heat to. However, there is more to selecting a heatsink and fan than just looking for a good price or one that looks cool. 9. What is the difference between a heat sink and a heat pipe?Vapor chambers are most often used to spread heat to a local heat sink, whereas heat pipes are generally better for moving heat to a remote sink. ... If you need a heat sink that's minimally 10 times, but usually closer to 20 times, the area of the heat source, consider vapor chambers. 10. How is a heat sink attached to an electrical component?A heat sink is a mechanical component that is attached to an electrical component for the sake of transferring heat from the electrical component into the surrounding environment. This environment is most commonly air, but it can also be other fluids, such as water or coolant. 

The solid-state capacitor is called a solid-state aluminum electrolytic capacitor. The biggest difference between it and ordinary capacitors (i.e. liquid aluminum electrolytic capacitors) lies in the use of different dielectric materials. The dielectric materials of liquid aluminum capacitors are electrolyte, while the dielectric materials of solid capacitors are electroconductive polymer materials.   Electronic Basics #14: Capacitors Catalog I. Solid State Capacitor Introduction II. Solid State Capacitor Advantages III. Solid State Capacitor Types IV. Advantages and Disadvantages of Solid Capacitors FAQ   I. Solid State Capacitor Introduction   In view of the many problems of liquid electrolytic capacitance, the solid aluminum electrolytic capacitor has emerged as the times require. Since the 1990s, solid conducting polymer material has been used as cathode instead of electrolyte for aluminum electrolytic capacitor, which has achieved great development. The conductivity of conductive polymer materials is usually 2 ~ 3 orders of magnitude higher than that of electrolytes.    The application of aluminum electrolytic capacitors can greatly reduce the ESR and improve the features of temperature frequency, what’s more, because of the good processability of polymer materials, it is easy to be packaged. All greatly promote the development of aluminum electrolytic capacitance.   On the market, there are two types of aluminum electrolytic capacitors: organic semiconductor aluminum electrolytic capacitors (OS-CON) and polymer conductor aluminum electrolytic capacitors (PC-AC) (PC-CON).    The structure of an organic semiconductor aluminum electrolytic capacitor is similar to that of a liquid aluminum electrolytic capacitor; both are packaged in straight-pin and vertical configurations.   The difference is the cathode material of solid aluminum polymer electrolytic capacitor using the organic semiconductor extract, which can effectively solve the tough problems of electrolyte evaporation, leakage, flammability, and so on. Also, a solid aluminum polymer patch capacitor is a unique structure formed by combining the characteristics of aluminum electrolytic capacitance and tantalum capacitance.   Like liquid aluminum electrolytic capacitors, solid aluminum polymers are mostly in the form of patches. The film of polymer electrode with high conductivity is deposited on alumina as cathode, carbon, and silver as an extraction electrode, which is similar to the structure of solid tantalum electrolytic capacitance.     II. Solid State Capacitor Advantages   （1）With high stability, the solid aluminum electrolytic capacitor can work stably in a high-temperature environment, and improve the performance of the motherboard directly. At the same time, it is suitable for power filters because of its stable impedance in a wide temperature range, provides a stable and abundant power supply effectively, especially in overclocking.    Solid-state capacitors can work at high temperatures and maintain various electrical properties. The capacitance changes less than 15% in the whole temperature range, which is obviously superior to the liquid electrolytic capacitance. Meanwhile, the capacitance of solid-state electrolytic capacitor is independent of its working voltage, so it can work stably in the environment of voltage fluctuation.   （2）The solid-state aluminum electrolytic capacitor has an extremely long service life (over 50 years). It longer than the liquid aluminum electrolytic capacitance. And it will not be broken down, nor need to worry about liquid electrolyte drying and leakage affecting the stability of the motherboard. Solid-state electrolytes do not expand or even burn as liquid electrolytes do at high temperatures. Even if the temperature of the capacitor exceeds its limit, it just melts, which does not cause the capacitor metal shell to burst, so it is very safe.    The working temperature has a direct effect on the life of electrolytic capacitance. Advantages of its electrolyte make a longer service life than liquid electrolytic capacitor under different temperature conditions.   （3）Low ESR(Equivalent Series Resistance) and high mA rms are important indexes of capacitance. The lower the ESR, the faster the charge and discharge speed of capacitance. It directly affects the decoupling performance of the microprocessor power supply circuit, which is more obvious in high-frequency circuits. Therefore, it can be viewed the biggest difference between solid-state electrolytic capacitance and liquid capacitance.   Solid aluminum electrolytic capacitance with the lower ESR and energy dissipation under high power operation conditions can fully absorb the high amplitude voltage between the power lines in the circuit and prevent its interference to the system. When the CPU changes from a low power state to a full load state, the transient (generally less than 5 milliseconds) power required for this CPU switch comes from the CPU power supply circuit, at this moment, the high peak current can be output instantly by the high-speed charge-discharge characteristic of the solid-state capacitor, which can guarantee sufficient power supply and ensure the CPU to work stably.     III. Solid State Capacitor Types     According to the medium, capacitors can be divided into inorganic dielectric capacitors, organic dielectric capacitors, and electrolytic capacitors three categories.   1. Inorganic dielectric capacitors: including familiar ceramic capacitors and mica capacitors, we will often see ceramic capacitors on the CPU. Ceramic capacitors have excellent comprehensive properties and can be used in GHz-class UHF devices, such as CPU/GPU, thus its price is also very expensive.   2.Organic dielectric capacitors: such as thin-film capacitors, which are often used in loudspeakers with their precision, high temperature, and high-pressure resistance.   3. Electrolytic capacitors: known as aluminum capacitors. The traditional method of classifying electrolytic capacitors is based on anode materials, such as aluminum, tantalum, or niobium. However, this method of judging capacitance performance based on the anode is out of date. At present, the key to determine the performance of electrolytic capacitance lies not in the anode, but in the electrolytic, cathode. According to the classification of cathode materials, electrolytic capacitors can be divided into electrolyte, manganese dioxide, TCNQ organic semiconductors, solid polymer conductors, and so on.      IV. Breif Analysis of Advantages and Disadvantages of Solid Capacitors   The dielectric of liquid electrolytic capacitors is liquid electrolyte: liquid particles are very active at high temperatures and have a low boiling point relative to the internal pressure of the capacitor, making it easily explosible. The solid-state capacitance is made of polymer dielectric: at high temperatures, the particle growth and behavior of solid particles are lower than that of liquid electrolytes, and its boiling point will reach 350 degrees Celsius, making it almost impossible to burst.    The ESR of solid-state capacitance in high-frequency operation is shown to be very weak, and the conductivity is very fine. It has the properties of lowering impedance and producing less heat, which is the most obvious between 100KHz and 10MHz.   Traditional electrolytic capacitance is easily influenced by the operating environment's temperature and humidity, and it is less stable at high and low temperatures. The ESR of the solid capacitance can be as low as 0.0040.005 ohms between minus 55 and 105 degrees Celsius, but the electrolytic capacitance varies with temperature.   In terms of capacitance values, liquid capacitance would be lower than the indicated capacitance value below 20 degrees Celsius, and the lower the temperature, the lower the capacitance value. At minus 20 degrees Celsius, capacitance decreases by around 13%, and at minus 55 degrees Celsius, capacitance decreases by 37%. Since solid capacitance decreases by less than 5% at minus 55 degrees, solid state capacitors are guaranteed not to be harmed by lower temperatures. The low-frequency response of solid-state capacitance is not as good as electrolytic capacitance.     In other words, a motherboard with all-solid-state capacitance is not the most reasonable. Whether solid or electrolytic capacitors, their main function is to filter clutter, so long as the capacity and quality of capacitance can reach certain requirements, it can also ensure a stable operation. Solid-state capacitors at 105C have the same lifetime as electrolytic capacitors for 2000 hours.    When the temperature drops, their lives increase, but the solid-state capacitors increase even more. In general, the operational temperature of the capacitor is 70 degrees or less. In addition, the service life of solid-state capacitance can last 23 years, almost six times than the electrolytic capacitance. Compared with electrolytic capacitors, the capacity of electrolytic capacitors is much larger than that of solid capacitors at the same volume and voltage.     At present, solid capacitors are mostly used in the CPU power supply of computer motherboard, but the capacity redundancy is very little, it is necessary to improve the switching frequency of the part of the CPU power supply. Both solid and electrolytic capacitors will have the problem of capacity attenuation in the process of use. However, although the capacity of the circuit board with solid-state capacitance fluctuates slightly, the power supply will appear ripples, which will cause the CPU to work improperly.     Therefore, the lifetime of the solid-state capacitor is very high theoretically, but not in practice. Maintenance when using solid-state capacitor computer board: the power supply part of the CPU is often connected with multiple capacitors, so the solid-state capacitance will not have deformation, explosive slurry, leakage, etc. There is no way to determine which one is out of order basically. Therefore, in maintenance, one of them is often removed (no matter good or bad), and a large-capacity capacitor can be replaced (often with electrolytic capacitance). This method can usually solve the problem quickly.      In theory, the lifetime of the solid-state capacitor is very long, but there will still be a lot of faults in the process of practical use. At present, it seems that most motherboards with overclocking as the selling point put forward by many manufacturers will use solid-state capacitors. But it is not the capacitance that determines the performance of the CPU. The design of the circuit, the development of BIOS, the quality of the CPU itself, and the heat dissipation measures may determine the success or failure of the CPU.   FAQ   1. What is a solid state capacitor? The full name of a solid capacitor is a conductive polymer aluminum electrolytic capacitor, also called a polymer aluminum capacitor. It is currently the highest level of capacitor products. The dielectric material of the solid capacitor is a functional conductive polymer, which can greatly improve the product.   2. Are Solid Capacitors better? Solid capacitors have a higher tolerance not only for higher temperatures, but they also perform better with higher frequencies and higher current than electrolytic capacitors. ... Because there is less impedance at higher frequencies, solid capacitors are more stable and generate less heat than electrolytic capacitors.   3. How do you read a solid state capacitor? If you have a capacitor that has nothing other than a three-digit number printed on it, the third digit represents the number of zeros to add to the end of the first two digits. The resulting number is the capacitance in pF. For example, 101 represents 100 pF: the digits 10 followed by one additional zero.   4. What do you need to know about solid state capacitors? Solid-state capacitors have already gone down the altar. Many common electronic and digital products use these products in large quantities. The solid-state capacitors are similar to the common aluminum electrolytic capacitors, some are replaceable, and there is a solid capacitor, sheet, for Replace the common tantalum capacitor.   5. Which is the best electrolytic capacitor for motherboard? Solid aluminum electrolytic capacitors can directly improve the performance of the motherboard. At the same time, it is suitable for power supply filtering due to its stable impedance over a wide temperature range. It can effectively provide a stable and abundant power supply, which is especially important in overclocking.   6. How do you read a solid state capacitor? If you have a capacitor that has nothing other than a three-digit number printed on it, the third digit represents the number of zeros to add to the end of the first two digits. The resulting number is the capacitance in pF. For example, 101 represents 100 pF: the digits 10 followed by one additional zero.   7. What is the average lifespan of a capacitor? Design lifetime at rated temperature. Manufacturers of electrolytic capacitors specify the design lifetime at the maximum rated ambient temperature, usually 105°C. This design lifetime can vary from as little as 1,000 hours to 10,000 hours or more.   8. What metals are capacitors made of? There are three different anode metals in use for electrolytic capacitors: Aluminum electrolytic capacitors use a high-purity etched aluminium foil with aluminium oxide as dielectric. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors use a sintered pellet (“slug”) of high-purity tantalum powder with tantalum pentoxide as dielectric.   9. When should you use a capacitor? Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies.   10. How do I choose the right size capacitor? You mainly need to look at 2 values: the voltage and the capacity -both are written on most capacitors-. For example, if you are going to charge a capacitor with 24V, you need to make sure your capacitor will support that voltage; so you'll need a capacitor for at least 25V (plus error margin).       You May Also Like Operational Amplifier(OP Amp) Tutorial Instructions of Common problems in the Application of Inverter About Operational Amplifier LM358: 24 Classical Circuits DIY Community:  DIY Capacitor Flux Capacitor - Back TO The Future

NewsKynix will attend the 49th Korea Electronics Show (KES) 2018 from 24,October to 27, October 2018 in Korea; hours: 10 a.m.- 5 p.m. on Oct. 24 to 26 / 10 a.m.- 4 p.m. on Oct. 27. Our Booth Number in Korea Electronics Show is E320. we sincerely invites you to visit this exhibition.It is believed that you can have a better understanding of our company and we can form a stable partnership. Following are some information about the Korea Electronics Show. About Korea Electronics ShowThe Korea Electronics Show (KES) is a professional electronic Show certified by the international UFI. It is well known in the Asia-pacific region. It is one of the exhibitions of the Asia electronic Show alliance (AEECC).For a long time, Korea electronics show has become a bridge for cooperation between Chinese and Korean enterprises. Chinese electronics and household appliances enterprises have also gained the opportunity to exchange and cooperate with excellent Korean enterprises in the exhibition, and have rapidly opened up the Korean and overseas markets, thus enabling China to launch a step.Believe that there will be greater harvest!   Times The 49th Korea Electronics Show (KES) takes place on 4 days from 24,October to 27, October 2018 in Korea.Hours: 10 a.m.- 5 p.m. on Oct. 24 to 26 / 10 a.m.- 4 p.m. on Oct. 27   Themes of the exhibitionConvergence and Innovation Open up the Future Events in Number Exhibiting Companies:500Attendees:60000Exhibition Area:13500sqmFrequency:Annually Well-known Exhibitors Profile Booth Number                                                                                    Company Name                                                                            E320                                 Kynix                              C262                                 Avnet                               E518                                 cvilux                              C480                                                                                         Daimler AG                                                                       A221                                                                                          Gve                              S113                                                                                                      Luxy Star Electronics Inc.                                                            E520                                                                                           Chip One Stop, Inc.                                                            S114                                                                                            RITDISPLAY                           D192                                                                                                      Inlife-Handnet Co., Ltd.                                                    S110                                                                                                       LENOO ELECTRONICS CO., LTD                                              A148                                  OUTTOS INDUSTRIAL CO ., LTD                                        A147                                                                                           FRONTIER CIRCUIT LTD                                                      Exhibitor Profile Home entertainment                                                          automotive electronics products                                                              digital television                  Automobile navigation system                    LCD/PDP TV                       on-board computer                                                                        DVD                            intelligent transportation system (ITS) terminal        AddressCoex, 513, Yeongdong-daero, Gangnam-gu, Seoul, Korea, 06164Korea Electronics Show is one of the largest and modern fairgrounds of the world, a full member of The Global Association of the Exhibition Industry UFI in categories of Exhibition Organizers and Exhibition Centres.Coex official caterer is Gramercy Banquet & Conventions providing delicious options for your event. From small to large-scale events, Gramercy offers delicious fare and differentiated services to meet the need of your event and participants. This includes breakfasts, brunches, lunches, cocktail parties, dinners, banquets, themed parties, and special events.  About kynixKynix Semiconductor has founded over 10 years since 2008. These 10 years have witnessed our company's trials of becoming a better and better distributor and supplier in electronic components industry.In 2009, our company established the International Sales Department and became members of TBF and HKInventory. In 2010, we established cooperative relationships with accredited testing organizations like CECCLab, White Horse Lab, AAA...In 2013, we established a strategic partnership with dozens of well-known electronic components manufacturers including TI.In 2015,we reached an electronic components supply strategic partnership with Foxconn. Also ,our B2B trading platform was launched officially,whose members have exceeded 15,000 in 2017. Our partners in electronics field have increased to 700 up to now.In 2017, We attended Korea Electronic Show(KES), we won a lot of new partners and opened up kynix’s world market.  Our advantages         1. Strong operation system2. Good warehouse management3. Cooperation with advanced international testing companies4. Cooperation with international high standard logistics companies like UPS, DHL, TNT, FedEx5. Competitive supply from SumSung / Micron / BroadCom / Freescale / Atmel / Cypress and etc...6.After-sales Services7.Gurantee8.Commitment to Quality  Kynix attened the 2018 EXPO ELECTRONICAExpo Electronica in Moscow is an international exhibition of electronic components, modules and systems. The show is constantly growing and every year attracts more exhibitors and visitors from Russia, the CIS and other foreign countries.  ContactIf you have any questions, please contact us through the following contact information! Hope the exhibition finishes perfectly! We will be there and waiting for your coming! Telephone： +86-0755-88605655Fax：           0755-88603420Email：       info@kynix.com

From November 13th to 16th in 2018, the Electronica Munich 2018, the biggest International Exhibition of electronic components,modules and systems will be held this year in Messe München Exhibition Center. As an exhibitor of the exhibiton, Kynix Semiconductor sincerely invites you to visit this exhibition. It is believed that you can have a better understanding of our company and we can form a stabler partnership.Following are some information about the exhibition.Electronica Munich 2018OverviewWorld's largest industry gathering with contacts at the highest level. After expanding by one hall in 2016, Electronica is continuing to grow, and will fill 17 halls for the first time in 2018. And the range of exhibits at electronica covers technologies, products and solutions in the entire electronics industry. The trade fair presents industry trends and, in doing so, helps visitors stay oriented on the electronics industry's global market. Electronica's visitors represent nearly all consumer segments and user branches of industry.Electronica Munich 2018  Exhibit areas:ICM—Internatioales Congress Center München, GermanyTheme:Connecting everything-smart, safe & secureVenue:Messe München exhibition center, Munich, GermanyOrganizer:   Messe München GmbH | Messegel?nde | 81823 München              Tel. +49 89 949-11458 | Fax +49 89 949-11459              Info@electronica.deDate:  November 13th-16th, 2018.Opening Time:Tuesday-Thursday: 09:00-18:00    Friday: 09:00-17:00Our Booth Number: C4. 229-3/4 Electronica Map Exhibition SectorsAutomotiveTest and measurementDisplaysMicro- and nanosystemsElectromechanics/System peripheryPassive componentsElectronic design (ED/EDA)SensorsEmbedded systemsServicesEMS Electronic manufacturing servicesPower suppliesSemiconductorsSystem components/Assemblies and subsystemsPCBs and other circuit carriersWirelessFamous Exhibitors  About KynixKynix Semiconductor has founded over 10 years since 2008. These 10 years have witnessed our company's trials of becoming a better and better distributor and supplier in electronic components industry.In 2009, our company established the International Sales Department and became members of TBF and HKInventory. In 2010, we established cooperative relationships with accredited testing organizations like CECCLab, White Horse Lab, AAA...In 2013, we established a strategic partnership with dozens of well-known electronic components manufacturers including TI.In 2015,we reached an electronic components supply strategic partnership with Foxconn.Also ,our B2B trading platform was launched officially,whose members have exceeded 15,000 in 2017. Our partners in electronics field have increased to 700 up to now.In 2017, We attended Korea Electronic Show(KES), we won a lot of new partners and opened up kynix’s world market.After-sales ServicesGuranteeEach product from Kynix has been given a warranty period of 1 YEAR . During this period , we could provide free technical maintenance if there are any problems about our products.If you find quality problems about our products after receiving them , you could test them and apply for unconditional refund if it can be proved.But it's just on this premise that the product is not used and the packing is not damaged.Commitment to QualityKynix has always been laying emphasis on the quality of its products and maintaining a sound cooperative relation with electronic components manufacturers since its founding. It has been conducting quality-monitoring system following the rigid rules in terms of the quality of the product, delivery, and it's after-sales service.  It is claimed by Kynix that all products sold are 100% authentic. Each product has been tested carefully before being sent to the customer. It is our aim to be responsible for our customers and make them satisfactory.Electronica 2018 showcases the electronics industry's entire range of technologies, trends, products and solutions. Stop by the Kynix Semiconductor stand to discover the newest products and technologies to support your design and prototyping needs. Come and see how we're engineering plenty of fun at this year's leading trade fair for electronic components, systems and applications. The 2018 EXPO ELECTRONICA We have atteneded:From Apr. 17th to 19th in 2018, the EXPO ELECTRONICA,the 21st International Exhibition of electronic components,modules and systems  held in CROCUS EXPO,MOSCOW,RUSSIA. As an exhibitor of the exhibiton, Kynix Semiconductor invited to join this great exhibition. It is believed that you can have a better understanding of our company and we can form a stabler partnership. The EXPO ELECTRONICA is a big party for electronic companyies and comsumers, also a good chance to make friends with all over the world people.The 2017 Electronic Show We have atteneded: In 2017,we attened the Korean Electronic Show which held from 17 October to 20th October 2017 at the COEX Korea Exhibition Center in Seoul, Korea. Under the theme--Where the Creative Things are, there are more well-known exhibitors such as UNION SEIMITSU CO., LTD.; SILICONE VALLEY CO., LTD.; SANYO DENKI (THAILAND) CO.,LTD.; MORNSUN took part in KES.ContactIf you have any questions, please contact us through our emails! Hope the exhibition finishes perfectly! We will be there and waiting for your coming!Tel:00852-81928838    Email:info@kynix.com