circuit Related Articles

IntroductionThe transistor is one of the basic semiconductor components, which has the function of current amplification in electronic circuit. It is made of two PN junctions very close to each other on a semiconductor substrate. Two PN junctions divide the entire semiconductor into three parts: The middle part is the base area, and the two sides are the emitter and the collector. What is NPN Transistor? For BeginnerCatalogIntroductionⅠ NPN Transistor Arrangement and SymbolⅡ How Do NPN Transistors Work?Ⅲ NPN Transistor Uses: A Controllable ValveⅠ NPN Transistor Arrangement and SymbolBefore explaining the principle, let's first understand the basic structure and symbols of the NPN transistor. To identify the NPN transistor pins, it will be Collector (c), Base (b) and Emitter (e).Figure 1. NPN Transistor Structure and SymbolNPN transistor is composed of two N-type semiconductors and one P-type semiconductor. Generally, an NPN transistor has a piece of P-type silicon (the base) sandwiched between two pieces of N-type (the collector and emitter). The arrangement is shown in the Figure 1. Ⅱ How Do NPN Transistors Work?Here is the main description to illustrate the basic principle and function of NPN transistors.1) Current AmplificationThe following analysis is only for NPN silicon transistors. As shown in the figure above, we call the current flowing from the base B to the emitter E the base current Ib; the current flowing from the collector C to the emitter E is called the collector current Ic. The directions of these two currents are both flowing out of the emitter, so an arrow is used on the emitter E to indicate the current direction.The amplification function of the transistor is: the collector current is controlled by the base current (assuming that the power supply can provide a large enough current to the collector), and a small change in the base current will cause a large change in the collector current: the change in the collector current is β times the change in the base current, that is, the current change is amplified by β times, so we call β the magnification of the transistor (β is generally much larger than 1). If we add a changing small signal between the base and the emitter, it will cause a change in the base current Ib. After the change in Ib is amplified, it leads to a big change in Ic. If the collector current Ic flows through a resistor R, it can be calculated according to the Ohm's Law formula U=R*I, and the voltage on this resistor will change greatly. According to the voltage on this resistor, so we can get the amplified voltage signal. In short, the change satisfies a certain proportional relationship.2) Bias CircuitWhen the transistor is used in the actual amplifier circuit, it is also necessary to add a suitable bias circuit. There are several reasons for this. First of all, due to the non-linearity of the transistor's BE junction (equivalent to a diode), the base current must be generated after the input voltage reaches a certain level (for silicon tubes, 0.7V is often used). When the voltage between the base and the emitter is less than 0.7V, the base current can be considered as zero. However, in practice, the signal to be amplified is often much smaller than 0.7V. If no bias is applied, such a small signal is not enough to cause a change in the base current (because when it is less than 0.7V, the base current is all 0).Add a suitable current to the base of the transistor (called the bias current, and the resistor in the figure used to provide this current, is called the base bias resistor). When a small signal follows this bias current are superimposed together, a small signal will cause a change in the base current, and the change in the base current will be amplified and output on the collector. Another reason is meeting the requirement of the output signal range. If there is no bias, then only those increased signals will be amplified, but the decreased signals will be invalid (because the collector current is 0 when there is no bias, and it cannot be reduced). With bias, let the collector have a certain current in advance. When the input base current becomes smaller, the collector current can be reduced; when the input base current increases, the collector current increases. Both the reduced signal and the increased signal can be amplified.3) NPN Transistor SwitchLet's talk about the saturation mode of the transistor. As shown in the figure above, because of the limitation of resistance Rc (Rc is a fixed value, then the maximum current is U/Rc, where U is the power supply voltage), the collector current cannot increase indefinitely. When the base current increases and the collector current cannot continue to increase, the transistor enters a saturated state. The general criterion for judging whether the transistor is saturated is: Ib*β>Ic.In a saturation state, the voltage between the collector and the emitter of the transistor will be very small, which can be understood as a switch. In this way, when the base current is 0, the collector current is 0 (this is called the triode cut-off), which is equivalent to the switch off; when the base current is large, it is equivalent to the switch on. In cut-off and saturation state, a transistor is equal to a switch.4) Operational StateIf we replace the resistor Rc with a bulb in the above figure, then when the base current is 0, the collector current is 0, so the bulb is off. If the base current is relatively large (greater than the current flowing through the bulb divided by the magnification β), the transistor will saturate, and the bulb will light up. Since the control current only needs to be a little larger than β of the bulb current, a small current can be used to control the on and off of a large current. If the base current increases slowly, the brightness of the bulb will also increase (which is a saturation process).The figure below is a basic transistor switch circuit. The base should connect a base resistor (R2), and the collector connects with a load resistor (R1).Operational ModeNPNCut-offUne<UonUc>UbActiveUbe>UonUc>UbSaturationUbe>UonUc<UbNPN transistor uses the B-E current (IB) to control the C-E current (IC). The E pole has the lowest potential, and usually the C pole has the highest potential during normal amplification, that is, VC>VB>VE.NPN base extremely high voltage, the collector and emitter are short-circuit and low-voltage, and the collector and emitter are open-circuit.NPN is suitable for two situations:If the input is a high level and the output needs a low level, NPN is better.If the input is a low level and the output needs a high level, NPN is better.2N2222 NPN Transistor PinoutⅢ NPN Transistor Uses: A Controllable ValveNPN is a component that uses b (base) current Ib to drive the current Ic flowing through CE, and its working principle is much like a controllable valve.Figure 2. A Controllable ValveThe blue water flow in the thin pipe on the left impacts the lever to open the valve of the large water pipe, allowing the larger red water flow to pass through the valve. The larger the blue water flow, the greater the red water flow in the big pipe. If the magnification is 100, then when the blue water flow is 1 kg/hour, then 100 kg/hour of water is allowed to flow through the large pipe. The principle of the transistor is the same. When Ib (base current) is 1mA, a current of 100mA is allowed to pass through Ice.Figure 3. NPN Transistor DiagramLet's analyze this circuit. If its magnification is 100, and ignore the base voltage. The base current is 10V÷10K=1mA, so the collector current should be 100mA. According to Ohm's law, the voltage on Rc is 0.1A×50Ω=5V. Then the remaining 5V is on the C and E poles of the transistor. Now if we let Rb be 1K, then the base current is 10V÷1K=10mA, according to the magnification of 100, is Ic 1000mA? If it is really 1A, then the voltage on Rc is 1A×50Ω=50V. The power supply voltage has been exceeded, and the transistors have become generators? This is not the case. See below:Figure 4. NPN Transistor Compared to A ValveContinue the metaphor. When the control current is 10mA, the valve on the main water pipe is opened to allow 1A current to flow, but can 1A be realized? No, because there is a resistor on it, it is equivalent to a fixed valve. It is stringed on top of the main water pipe. When the opening of the lower controllable valve is greater than the opening of the upper fixed resistor, the water flow will not increase any more, but will be equal to the water flow passing through the fixed valve opening above. Therefore, it is useless to open the lower transistor to a large opening. Therefore, we can calculate the maximum current of the fixed resistor 10V÷50Ω=0.2A, which is 200mA. That is to say, in the circuit, the base current increases and the collector current also increases. When the base current Ib increases to 2mA, the collector current increases to 200mA. When the base current increases again, the collector current will no longer increase, and it will not move at 200mA. At this time, the upper resistor also acts as a current limiter.  Let us understand the status of the IO in the microcontroller.Figure 5. AT89S51/52 The circuits with 24 IO ports of P1-P3 in the single-chip microcomputer are as shown in the figure above. Usually the purpose of using electronic circuits is to allow devices to obtain a certain current to make them work. For example, to make light-emitting diodes bright, a current of more than 1mA is generally required. However, the single-chip microcomputer is a smart chip. It can make logical analysis and judgments by detecting the voltage value of each IO port, and outputs high or low voltage as the result signal. Therefore, it can be seen that the IO ports of the single-chip microcomputer focus on voltage, not the current flowing through R and the transistor. Here what is the relationship between the voltage and current of the IO port in the single-chip microcomputer?  Continue the water pipe example.Suppose we let the valve of R open larger and let the control valve below be fully closed. At this time, as shown in Figure 6, it can be seen that the pressure at point P is the same as the water tank. When we fully open the following control valve, as shown in Figure 7, the water will flow through the pipeline with a large flow, and the pressure at point P is 0 at this time. This principle is very similar to electronic circuits. The logic quantity measured at the output point P is 1 (power supply voltage) or 0 (0 potential) by transistor turning off or on. However, there is a problem with this process, that is, when the output of point P is required to be 0, the transistor will be turned on very large, and the current flowing through it will be very large. There are 32 IO ports on the single-chip microcomputer, which consumes a lot of power. Look at Figure 8. If we close the upper valve R very small and close the lower control valve fully, then the pressure at point P will still the same as the water tank, which is the same as in Figure 6 above. When we open the control valve greatly, as shown in Figure 9, although the pressure at point P is also 0, the flow of water passing through at this time is greatly reduced. In this way, we can either output 1 or 0. So very little water is consumed. The circuit in the single-chip microcomputer does exactly this. The resistance R on it is about 50K, and the maximum current is 5V÷50K=0.1mA. In other words, when P outputs 1, no current is consumed, and when P outputs 0, the current consumed is 0.1mA. Because of its large pull-up resistance R, for beginners, it is necessary to have certain methods to directly drive LEDs or other loads. Here to share the various situations when the IO port is connected to the load.Figure 10. AT89S51/52 & 74HC373Let's take a look at the situation of connecting TTL devices first. When P1.0 is connected to an input pin of 74HC373, and the input impedance of TTL is very high, about a few hundred K to M ohm level. We assume 500K resistor to P1.0 to ground. In this way, when the transistor is turned on, the P1.0 point is at a low level, and a current of 0.1mA flows through Rc and then through the transistor to the ground, and no current flows through Ri. When the transistor is cut off, the current flows through Rc and then flows to the ground through Ri. Due to the resistor voltage divider effect, there are partial voltages on Rc and Ri, and the voltage at point P1.0 is the divided voltage of Rc and Ri. Total current is 5V÷(50K＋500K)=0.009mA, then the voltage at point P1.0 is 0.009mA×500K=4.5V. TTL stipulates that output 2.4~5V is high level. So this connection is correct. Now let's take a look at the situation of using S51 to drive the LED.AT89S51 Correct ConnectionLet’s take a look at the situation in Figure 11. Obviously, only P1.0 is a high potential to light the luminous tube, so the transistor must be cut off. In this case, the current flows through Rc to the luminous tube and then to the ground. To make the luminous tube turn on, there must be a threshold voltage exceeding 2.1V at both ends of the luminous tube. Therefore, the current flowing through the luminous tube is (5V-2.1V)÷50K=0.058mA, which is too weak to conduct.Look at Figure 12. It can be seen from the figure that P1.0 must be at a low potential if the luminous tube turned on. The transistor of the P1.0 port must be turned on. At this time, the current flows all the way through Rc to the transistor and then to the ground. The other way consumes 2.1V on the luminous tube. Then current flows through with almost no resistance, but the maximum current of the triode of the IO port cannot exceed 15mA. If it exceeds, the triode will be burned out, so this connection method is incorrect. So how can these two connections be able to drive the light-emitting tube? See below: AT89S51 Incorrect ConnectionLooking at Figure 13, a resistor Ri is connected between P1.0 and Vcc. When the transistor is turned on, two currents will flow through its c, e pole, one is the 0.1mA current on the internal R, and the other is the current on Ri. In order to prevent the transistor from over-current and burn out, we must make sure the resistance value, Ri=5V÷15mA=0.333K, which is about 330 ohms. At this time, the current flowing through the transistor is about 15mA, and the light-emitting tube is not bright at this time. When the transistor is turned off, both currents will flow through the luminous tube. The current flowing through the internal resistance of S51 is (5V-2.1V)÷50K=0.06mA, which is so small that we can ignore it. The current flowing through Ri is (5V-2.1V)÷330Ω=0.0087A, which is 8.7mA. However, the current consumed when the luminous tube is off is greater than the current consumed when the luminous tube is on. If many IO ports are used to light up many LEDs, such a circuit is not economical.Look at Figure 14, after connecting a resistor in series with the luminous tube between Vcc and P1.0. When the transistor is turned on, the two currents will flow through the c, e after confluence. The current on the internal resistance is still 0.1mA. The current on the ce should be less 15mA. If exceeds 15mA, the resistance is determined as (5V-2.1V) ÷ 15mA = 0.193K, which is about 200 ohms. In this way, the current flowing through the luminous tube is about 15mA, and the luminous tube is on. When the transistor is cut off, it blocks the paths of these two currents, so no current is consumed. Low level P1.0 directly drives the light-emitting tube. It can be seen that this circuit consumes 15mA of current when the light-emitting tube is on, and does not consume current when it is off, so this circuit is effective. S51 direct drive digital tube generally also uses this principle. Frequently Asked Questions about NPN Transistor1. What is meant by NPN transistor?An NPN transistor is the most commonly used bipolar junction transistor, and is constructed by sandwiching a P-type semiconductor between two N-type semiconductors. An NPN transistor has three terminals– a collector, emitter and base. The NPN transistor behaves like two PN junctions diodes connected back to back. 2. How do NPN transistors work?The NPN transistor is designed to pass electrons from the emitter to the collector (so conventional current flows from collector to emitter). The emitter "emits" electrons into the base, which controls the number of electrons the emitter emits. ... The transistor is kind of like an electron valve. 3. What is a NPN transistor used for?NPN transistors are mainly used in switching applications. Used in amplifying circuit applications. Used in the Darlington pair circuits to amplify weak signals. NPN transistors are used in the applications where there is a need to sink a current. 4. Which is better PNP or NPN transistor?A NPN transistor has electrons as majority charge carriers whereas the PNP transistor has holes as majority charge carrier. ... mobility of electrons is more than hole,so as a result npn transistor are faster than pnp that's why they are preferred. 5. What does NPN mean?NPN stands for Negative, Positive, Negative. Also known as sinking.

IntroductionA three-phase circuit consists of a three-phase source, a three-phase load, and a three-phase transmission line. The most basic characteristic of this circuit is that it has one or more groups of power supplies. Each group consists of three sinusoidal power supplies with the same amplitude, the same frequency, 120° phase difference, and the power supply and the load are connected in a specific way. Three-phase circuits are widely used in power systems such as power generation, transmission, distribution, and high-power electrical equipment.What does 3 phase mean?CatalogIntroductionⅠ Three-phase Circuit Basics1.1 Three-phase Circuit Characterized1.2 Three-phase Circuit Terms1.3 Three-phase Voltage & Current1.4 Three-phase Circuit AdvantagesⅡ Symmetrical vs Asymmetrical2.1 Symmetrical Three-phase Circuit2.2 Three-phase AsymmetryⅢ Power in Three Phase Circuit FormulasⅣ Frequently Asked Questions about Three-phase CircuitⅠ Three-phase Circuit BasicsThe three phases could be supplied over six wires, with two wires reserved for the exclusive use of each phase. However, they are generally supplied over only three wires, and the phase or line voltages are the voltages between the three possible pairs of wires. The phase or line currents are the currents in each wire. Voltages and currents are usually expressed as rms or effective values, as in single-phase analysis.1.1 Three-phase Circuit CharacterizedSpecial power supplySpecial loadSpecial connectionSpecial solution1.2 Three-phase Circuit Terms1) End wire (fire wire)2) Neutral line3) Line current4) Line voltage5) Phase current6) Phase voltage7) Three-phase three-wire system and three-phase four-wire system1.3 Three-phase Voltage & CurrentStar ConnectionSummery: Line Voltage vs Phase Voltage1) The line current is equal to the corresponding phase current.2) If the phase voltage is symmetrical, the line voltage is also symmetrical.3) The line voltage is equal to √3 times the phase voltage.4) The phase of the line voltage leads the corresponding phase voltage by 30°. Delta ConnectionSummery: Line Current vs Phase Current1) The line voltage is equal to the corresponding phase voltage.2) If the phase currents are symmetrical, the line currents are also symmetrical.3) The line current is equal to √3 times the phase voltage.4) The phase of the line current lags behind the corresponding phase voltage by 30°.1.4 Three-phase Circuit AdvantagesPower generation: Three-phase power is increased by 50% compared to single-phase power.Transmission: 25% less material than single-phase circuit transmission. That is, under certain conditions, transmitting a certain amount of power by three-phase only requires 75% of the copper of single-phase transmission.Power distribution: More economical than single-phase transformers and easier to connect to the load.Transportation: simple structure, low cost, reliable operation, convenient maintenance.In addition, three wires are usually seen in high-voltage transmission lines, whether on towers or poles, with pin or suspension insulators. Some high-voltage lines are now DC, since solid state devices make it easier to convert to and from AC. The DC lines are free of the problems created by phase, as well as eliminating the skin effect that reduces the effective area of the conductors. It is not nearly as easy to manage long-distance electrical transmission as might be thought.Ⅱ Symmetrical vs Asymmetrical2.1 Symmetrical Three-phase CircuitA symmetrical three-phase power source is usually generated by a three-phase synchronous generator, as shown in Figure (a). Among them, the three-phase windings differ by 120° in space. When the rotor rotates at a uniform angular velocity ω, an induced voltage is generated in the three-phase winding, thereby forming a symmetrical three-phase power supply as shown in Figure (b). Among them, the three ends of A, B, and C are called the start end, and the three ends of X, Y, and Z are called the end. When you connect a load to the three wires, it should be done in such a way that it does not destroy the symmetry.Instantaneous Voltage Calculation of Three-phase PowerIn the formula, take the phase A voltage uA as the reference sine quantity. The three-phase voltage waveform diagram is shown in Figure (a).The key to understanding three-phase is to understand the phasor diagram for the voltages or currents. The phasor of the three-phase power supply can be represented by the Figure (b).The characteristics of the symmetrical three-phase power supply can be derived from the above formula:From the above formula, the sum of the instantaneous value of the three-phase power supply and the sum of the phasor are always zero.The sequence in which each phase of the three-phase power passes through the same value (such as the maximum value) is called the phase sequence of the three-phase power, and the phase sequence of the above-mentioned three-phase voltage is called the positive sequence. Conversely, if phase B exceeds 120° of phase A and phase C exceeds 120° of phase B, this phase sequence is called reverse sequence. If there is no special instructions, it will generally default to positive order.2.2 Three-phase Asymmetry1) In a three-phase circuit, as long as there is asymmetrical part, it is called a three-phase asymmetry.2) The complex power absorbed by the three-phase load is equal to the sum of various complex powers.3) The instantaneous power of a three-phase circuit is the sum of the instantaneous power of each phase load.4) In a three-phase three-wire circuit, whether symmetrical or not, two power meters can be used to measure three-phase power.When the power supply voltage in the three-phase circuit is asymmetrical or the parameters in the circuit are asymmetrical, the current in the circuit is generally asymmetrical. This kind of circuit is called three-phase asymmetry. There are a lot of asymmetry parts in three-phase circuits, and the causes are different. For example, there are many low-power single-phase loads in a three-phase circuit, it is difficult to make them into a completely symmetrical circuit. When a three-phase circuit is broken or short-circuited, it is also a three-phase asymmetry circuit. In addition, some electrical equipment and instruments formally use three-phase asymmetry to work.For example, the most common low-voltage three-phase four-wire system. Due to the large number of single-phase loads in the low-voltage system, the equivalent impedances ZA, ZB, and ZC of the three phases circuit are generally different from each other, and the power supply voltage can generally be considered symmetrical. In this way, a symmetrical three-phase power supply converts to an asymmetrical three-phase load.The circuit shown in the figure has two nodes, and the voltage between the two nodes can be directly calculated according to the node voltage method.Although the power supply voltage in the above formula is symmetrical, the voltage between the neutral point of the power supply and the neutral point of load is not zero due to the load asymmetry, that is, UNN≠0. According to Kirchhoff's voltage law, the phase voltage of the load can be obtained as:The phasor diagram of each voltage corresponding to the above formula is as follows:Ⅲ Power in Three Phase Circuit Formulas1. Average PowerSuppose the power absorbed by a phase load in a symmetrical three-phase circuit is equal to Pp=UpIpcosφ, where Up is the phase voltage and Ip is the phase current of the load. Then the total three-phase power is: P=3UpIpcosφPay Attention To1) φ in the above formula is the phase difference angle (impedance angle) of phase voltage and phase current.2) cosφ is the power factor of each phase, in a symmetrical three-phase system:cosφA=cosφB=cosφC=cosφ3) The formula calculates the circuit power (or the power absorbed by the load).When the load is in a star connection, the line voltage  and line current  at the load end are substituted into the above formula:When the load is in a delta connection, the line voltage  and line current  at the load end are substituted into the above formula:2. Reactive powerThe reactive power absorbed by the load in a symmetrical three-phase circuit is equal to the sum of the reactive power of each phase:3. Apparent Power4. Instantaneous PowerSuppose the voltage and current of phase A of the three-phase load are:Then the instantaneous power of each phase is:It can be proved that their sum isThe above formula shows that the instantaneous power of a symmetrical three-phase circuit is a constant, and is equal to the average power. This is one of the advantages of a symmetrical circuit. For example, on a three-phase motor, a balanced electromagnetic torque is obtained and mechanical vibration is avoided, which is not available in single-phase motors. Ⅳ Frequently Asked Questions about Three-phase Circuit1. What is a 3 phase circuit?Three-phase power is a three-wire ac power circuit with each phase ac signal 120 electrical degrees apart. ... three-phase is that a three-phase power supply better accommodates higher loads. Single-phase power supplies are most commonly used when typical loads are lighting or heating, rather than large electric motors. 2. How many wires are in a 3 phase?four wiresThe three-phase system has four wires. Three are conductors and one is neutral. 3. What is the 3 phase power formula?3-Phase Calculations. For 3-phase systems, we use the following equation: kW = (V × I × PF × 1.732) ÷ 1,000. 4. What is the advantage of three-phase system?A three-phase circuit provides greater power density than a one-phase circuit at the same amperage, keeping wiring size and costs lower. In addition, three-phase power makes it easier to balance loads, minimizing harmonic currents and the need for large neutral wires. 5. What is meant by 3 phase balanced load?A balanced three-phase voltage or current is one in which the size of each phase is the same, and the phase angles of the three phases differ from each other by 120 degrees. ... With such a balanced load, if a balanced three-phase supply is applied, the currents will also be balanced.

IntroductionA stable power supply is necessary for normal operation of the electrical system. Except for the use of solar cells or chemical batteries in certain special occasions, the direct current of most circuits is converted from the alternating current of the grid. The bridge rectifier is commonly used to convert AC into DC, which is the most commonly used circuit that uses the unidirectional conductivity of diodes for rectification. There are many types of bridge rectifiers: flat, round, square, bench-shaped (plug in and SMD), etc., having GPP and O/J structures. The maximum rectified current ranges from 0.5A to 100A, and the maximum reverse peak voltage ranges from 50V to 1600V.What is Bridge Rectifier?CatalogIntroductionⅠ Bridge Rectifier Diode CircuitⅡ Bridge Rectifier Circuit FeaturesⅢ Single Phase Rectification vs Three Phase Rectification3.1 Single Phase Bridge Rectifier Circuit3.2 Three Phase Bridge Rectifier CircuitⅣ Role of Bridge RectificationⅤ Bridge Rectifier Wiring DiagramⅥ Difference between Bridge Rectifier and Full-wave Rectifier CircuitⅠ Bridge Rectifier Diode CircuitThe bridge rectifier uses four semiconductor diodes to be connected in pairs. When the positive half of the input sine wave is turned on, the two tubes are turned on, and the positive output is obtained; on the contrary, when the negative half of the sine wave is input, the other two tubes are turned on. Since the two tubes are reversely connected, the output is still the positive part of the sine wave. In addition, the utilization efficiency of the input sine wave by the bridge rectifier is twice as high as that of the half-wave rectifier.The rectifier bridge stack is generally used in a full-wave rectifier circuit, and it is divided into a full bridge and a half bridge. The full bridge is composed of 4 rectifier diodes connected in the form of a bridge full-wave rectifier circuit and packaged as a whole. The half bridge is to seal the half of the two diode bridge rectifiers together. Two half bridges can form a bridge rectifier circuit, and a half bridge can also form a full wave rectifier circuit with a center tap of the transformer. When choosing a rectifier bridge, the rectifier circuit and operating voltage must be considered carefully.The forward current of the full bridge has various specifications such as 0.5A, 1A, 1.5A, 2A, 2.5A, 3A, 5A, 10A, 20A, 35A, 50A, etc. The withstand voltage (the highest reverse voltage) is 25V, 50V, 100V, 200V, 300V, 400V, 500V, 600V, 800V, 1000V, etc.In this chapter, the rectifier diode is regarded as an ideal component, that is, its forward conduction resistance is considered to be zero, and its reverse resistance is infinite, because of the convenience of analyzing the rectifier circuit. However, in practical applications, it should be considered that the diode has internal resistance, and the output amplitude of the waveform obtained after rectification will be reduced by 0.6~1V. When the input voltage of the rectifier circuit is large, this part of the voltage drop can be ignored. On the contrary, if the input voltage is small, for example, if the input is 3V, the output is only 2V, and the influence of the diode forward voltage drop needs to be considered.Current Direction of the Bridge Rectifier CircuitFigure 1.In the positive half cycle of u2, D1 and D3 are turned on, D2 and D4 are turned off, and the current returns from the upper end of the TR secondary to the lower end via D1→RL→D3, and a half-wave rectified voltage is obtained on the load RL.In the negative half cycle of u2, D1 and D3 are off, D2 and D4 are on, and the current returns from the lower end of Tr secondary to the upper end of Tr secondary via D2→RL→D4, and the other half-wave rectified voltage is obtained on the load RL. Ⅱ Bridge Rectifier Circuit Features(1) The rectification device used is twice that of full-wave rectification.(2) Rectified voltage pulse changing direction is the same as full-wave rectification.(3) The reverse voltage that each device bears is the peak value of the power supply voltage.(4) The utilization rate of the transformer is higher than that of the full-wave rectifier circuit. Ⅲ Single Phase Rectification vs Three Phase Rectification3.1 Single Phase Bridge Rectifier CircuitFigure 2.The single phase bridge rectifier circuit is composed of four diodes connected in the form of a bridge. Its disadvantage is that it only uses half a cycle of the power supply, and at the same time the rectification voltage has a large pulsation.The above Figure 2 (a) shows the direction of current in the single-phase bridge rectifier circuit. The solid arrow indicates the situation when the AC power supply is in the positive half cycle, and the dotted arrow indicates the situation when the AC power supply is in the negative half cycle.It can be seen that the four diodes are divided into two parts: positive half cycle and negative half cycle. However, the current direction on the load does not change. This is full-wave rectification. In addition, the single-phase bridge rectifier circuit can be implemented with an integrated device "bridge stack" in practice.In Figure 3. shows the waveform diagram of the single phase bridge rectifier circuit. According to the diagram, the average voltage is: Uo ≈ 0.9U2 (where U2 is the effective value of the output voltage of the transformer secondary side).Figure 3. Wave Form (single phase)3.2 Three Phase Bridge Rectifier CircuitFigure 4.The three phase bridge rectifier circuit is developed from a uncontrolled half-wave rectifier circuit, which is essentially a series connection of a set of common cathode and a set of common anode with three semiconductor diodes.In addition, the three phase bridge circuit must have two thyristors turned on at the same time, one in the common cathode area and the other in the common anode area to form a loop.Circuit Analysis LawThe diode with the highest anode potential in the common cathode group is turned on.The diode with the lowest cathode potential in the common anode group is turned on.Circuit Analysis ExamplesFigure 5. t1 ~ t2In the common cathode group, the potential at point U is the highest, and V1 is on.In the common anode group, the potential at point V is the lowest, and V4 is on.The voltage across the load is the line voltage Uuv. Figure 6. t2~t3In the common cathode group, the potential at point U is the highest, and V1 is on.In the common anode group, the potential at point W is the lowest, and V6 is turned on.The voltage across the load is the line voltage Uuw. Figure 7. t3~t4In the common cathode group, the potential at point V is the highest, and V3 is on.In the common anode group, the potential at point W is the lowest, and V6 is turned on.The voltage across the load is the line voltage Uvw.......SummeryIn a full-wave cycle, it can be divided into 6 intervals, each of which is powered by a pair of phase wires to the load.In a full-wave cycle, each diode is turned on for one-third of the time (the conduction angle is 120°).During the 6 periods in a cycle, the voltage of the load can be seen as a periodic change. Ⅳ Role of Bridge Rectification1. Convert the alternating current generated by the alternator into direct current to power the electrical equipment and charge the battery.2. Limit the battery current to flow back to the generator to protect the generator from being burnt out by the reverse current.Figure 8. Bridge Rectifier AC to DC Flow ChartⅤ Bridge Rectifier Wiring DiagramThe bridge rectifier circuit overcomes the shortcomings that the full-wave rectifier circuit requires the transformer secondary to have a center tap and the diode to withstand large reverse voltage, but two diodes are used. With the rapid development of semiconductor devices and low cost today, this shortcoming is not obvious, so bridge rectifier circuits are widely used in practice.It needs to be pointed out that the diode as a rectifier component should be selected according to different rectification methods and load values. If choose improperly, you may not be able to work safely, or even burn the pipe, causing waste.Figure 9. Schematic Diagram of Bridge Rectifier CircuitThe bridge rectifier circuit can also be considered as a kind of full-wave rectifier circuit. The transformer is connected to four diodes according to the method shown in Figure 9. D1～D4 are four identical rectifier diodes connected in the form of a bridge, so they are called bridge rectifier circuits. Using the guiding function of the diode, the secondary output can be directed to the load even in the negative half cycle. It can be seen from the figure that D1 and D2 lead the current through RL from top to bottom during the positive half cycle, and D3 and D4 lead the current through RL from top to bottom during the negative half cycle. In this structure, if the same DC voltage is output, the secondary winding of the transformer needs only half of the winding compared with the full-wave rectification. However, if the same amount of current is to be output, the diameter of the winding should be increased accordingly.Because the output voltage of the rectifier circuit contains larger pulsating components. In order to reduce the pulsation component as much as possible, on the other hand, it is necessary to keep the DC component as much as possible to make the output voltage close to the ideal DC. This measure is filtering. Filtering is usually achieved by using the energy storage effect of capacitors or inductors.Figure 10. Bridge Rectifier Circuit with CapacitorIn this experimental circuit, capacitor filtering is used, that is, a filter capacitor C is connected in parallel with the load resistance RL. The circuit is shown in Figure 11, and the filtered waveform is as shown in the figure below.Figure 11. Full-wave Rectification Filter WaveformThe DC component of the full-wave rectified output voltage (compared to the half-wave) is increased, and the pulsation is reduced, but the transformer needs a center tap, which is troublesome to manufacture, and the rectifier diode needs to withstand high reverse voltage, so it is generally suitable for the low output voltage.Figure 12. Half-wave Rectification Filter WaveformHalf-wave rectification is the most commonly used circuit that uses the unidirectional conductivity of a diode for rectification. Ⅵ Difference between Bridge Rectifier and Full-wave Rectifier Circuit1) Don't need a center tap on the secondary side of the bridge rectifier circuit transformer, but use 2 more rectifier diodes.2) The full-wave rectifier circuit uses less than 2 rectifier diodes, but the secondary side of the transformer should be center-tapped.3) The reverse withstand voltage of the rectifier diode used in the full-wave rectifier circuit is twice that of the bridge rectifier.4) Rectification and full-wave rectification have different requirements for the number of secondary transformers. The former requires only 1 set of coils, while the latter requires 2 sets.5) Rectification and full-wave rectification have different requirements for the secondary current of the transformer, the former is twice the latter. Frequently Asked Questions about Bridge Rectifier Circuit1. What does a bridge rectifier do?A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding. ... Diodes are also used in bridge topologies along with capacitors as voltage multipliers. 2. How does a bridge rectifier convert AC to DC?Bridge rectifiers convert AC to DC using its system of diodes made of a semiconductor material in either a half wave method that rectifiers one direction of the AC signal or a full wave method that rectifies both directions of the input AC. 3. What happens when a bridge rectifier fails?Without capacitor smoothing, when 1 diode fails open in a bridge rectifier, both voltage and current reduce. With capacitor smoothing, when 1 diode fails open in a bridge rectifier, the voltage remains fairly constant but the current increases. 4. Why do we use 4 diodes in bridge rectifier?The bridge rectifier consisting of four diodes enables full wave rectification without the need for a centre tapped transformer. The bridge rectifier is an electronic component that is widely used to provide full wave rectification and it is possibly the most widely used circuit for this application. 5. Why is a bridge rectifier more preferable than a full wave rectifier?Bridge rectifier is driven by a single winding which carries current both cycles in load. ... Full wave is better than bridge in one more aspect i.e. the output DC voltage is slightly higher than bridge. This is because it has only 1 diode drop from AC to DC.

IntroductionFor people who have been in touch with digital circuits or analog circuits, the 555 IC is definitely classic work. With its low cost and reliable performance, it is widely used in various electrical appliances, including instruments and meters, household appliances, electric toys, and automatic control. The 555 timer only needs a few external resistors and capacitors to realize pulse generation and conversion circuits, such as multiple oscillators, monostable triggers and schmitt triggers. So how does it work in the circuit? What the role of its circuit? Here gives several typical 555 circuit examples for specific analysis.555 Timers Circuit LearningCatalogIntroductionⅠ Basic 555 Timer Circuit AnalysisⅡ 555 Multivibrator Circuit AnalysisⅢ 555 Timer Monostable Flip Flop Circuit AnalysisⅣ Classic 555 Timer Circuits DiagramsⅤ 555 Timer IC ModesⅠ Basic 555 Timer Circuit Analysis555 Means What?555 timer is a convenient and powerful IC, which is widely used in signal generation, conversion, control and detection. The origin of this name, because it is divided by three 5KΩ resistors. The 555 timer is a simple integrated circuit that can be used to make many different electronic circuits. With the following circuits analysis you will know how 555 IC works.Figure 1. Basic 555 Timer Circuit✔️ Circuit AnalysisR is not the reset terminal, when set to 0, Q is 0,  is 1, Uo outputs 0, and is 1 added to the base of the transistor T, the transistor is in the conducting state.① When R=0, Q=1, uo=0, T is saturated and turned on.② When R=1 (there is no reset function at this time):UTH>2VCC/3, UTR>VCC/3, C1=0, C2=1, Q=1 or =0, uo=0, T is saturated and turned on. (Analysis: C1's positive input terminal is 2VCC/3, C1's negative input UTH terminal is greater than the positive input terminal, working in saturation, and output 0. C2's negative input terminal is 1VCC/3, which is smaller than the positive input Terminal UTH, and outputs 1. There is a horizontal line above RD and SD, which means low level, meaning is Reset. C1 outputs 0, RD is valid, then Q is 0, not 1, Uo outputs 0, and is not acting on the base of the triode.)③ When R=1, UTH<2VCC/3, UTR>VCC/3, C1=1, C2=1, Q and remain unchanged, uo and T remain unchanged. (Analysis is the same as above)④ When R=1, UTH＜2VCC/3, UTR＜VCC/3, C1=1, C2=0, Q=0, =1, uo=1, T is cut off. (Analysis is the same as above) Learn how the inputs interact with the supply voltage to trigger and reset the output high and low. Find out which pins can be used to adjust the threshold at which that change happens.Ⅱ 555 Multivibrator Circuit AnalysisFigure 2. 555 Multivibrator Circuit Analysis Figure 3. 555 Multivibrator Circuit Example✔️ Circuit Analysis First, the power supply VCC charges the capacitor C through R1 and R2, and the voltage of the capacitor must be relatively small, less than 1VCC/3. Similarly, the positive terminal of C1 is 2VCC/3, the negative terminal of C2 is 1VCC/3, and the TH and TR terminals are connected At the same time, it is less than 1VCC/3 at the beginning. At this time, C1 outputs 1, C2 outputs 0, and the set terminal is valid (with detailed confirmation): Q is 1, is not 0, and uo is 1, the transistor is cut off, and outputs high level. At this time, the power supply is still charging the capacitor. When the TH and TR terminals are connected together, the voltage is less than 2VCC/3 and greater than 1VCC/3; C1 outputs 1, C2 outputs 1, the transistor is cut off, and uo is 1. When the capacitor is greater than 2VCC/3, C1 outputs 0 and C2 outputs 1. At this time, Q is 0, is not 1, uo is 0, the output is low, and the transistor is turned on. The capacitor will be discharged through pin 7. After this, the voltage at the point where TH and TR connected will gradually decrease, less than 2VCC/3 and greater than 1VCC/3, and then it will be less than 1VCC/3, to form a harmonic oscillator.The pulse width tp1 of the first transient state, that is, the time required for uc to rise from VCC/3 charging to 2VCC/3 (charged through two resistors):The second transient state pulse width tp2, that is, the time required for uc to discharge from 2VCC/3 to VCC/3:Duty cycle: the time that the high level occupies the entire cycle., it can be seen that its duty cycle is always greater than 50%.Examples 1Circuit with Adjustable Duty Cycle (add an adjustable resistor)Figure 4. Circuit with Adjustable Duty Cycle (add an adjustable resistor)It can be calculated:Where T1=0.7R1C (T1 is charging time), T2=0.7R2C (T2 is discharging time)Total time T=T1+T2=0.7(R1+R2)CSo R1, R2, and C are determined, and the period T is also determined.Duty Cycle Calculation Example 2Circuit with Adjustable Duty Cycle (1KHz)Figure 5. Circuit with Adjustable Duty Cycle (1KHz)✔️ Circuit AnalysisT = 0.7(R1+R2)C, f = 1/T, the duty cycle circuit only needs to adjust the resistance value. Ⅲ 555 Timer Monostable Flip Flop Circuit AnalysisWorking Characteristics① It has two different working states: steady state and transient state.② Under the action of an external trigger pulse, it can switch from the steady state to the transient state. After the transient state is maintained for a period of time, the circuit can automatically return to the steady state.③ The transient state cannot be maintained for a long time, and the duration of its sustaining time depends on the parameters of the circuit itself and has nothing to do with the trigger pulse. So what is the principle of a monostable circuit?Figure 6. 555 Timer Monostable Circuit Analysis Figure 7. 555 Timer Monostable Circuit Example✔️ Circuit AnalysisFirst, the TR terminal is at a high level ui, which must be greater than 1VCC/3. At this time, C2 outputs 1, and the power supply charges capacitor C through R. The charging voltage is less than 1VCC/3 (TH), CO voltage is equal to 2VCC/3, C1 outputs 1, and it is in the holding state at this time. Assuming that the non-reset terminal of R is reset before power on, the output of uo is 0, and then the previous state is still maintained and the output is 0 at this time. is 1, the transistor is turned on, the capacitor is discharged through pin 7, and uc is zero level. At a certain moment, ui is low, C1 still outputs 1, C2 outputs 0, Q is 1, is 0, uo outputs 1 (high level), and the transistor has been in the cut-off state. At this time, VCC can charge the capacitor (uc is getting larger). When uc is between 1VCC/3~2VCC/3, assuming that the TR terminal returns to the original state (high level), C1 outputs 1 , C2 outputs 1, at this time uo keeps in original state, it is still 1, and the transistor is in the cut-off state. When uc is greater than 2VCC/3, C2 is still 1, C1 output is 0, Q is 0, is 1, and uo is 0, the transistor is turned on and in a discharging state, at this time, uc is getting smaller and smaller.Summery:1. As long as a low-level trigger signal is given, the temporary stable stay time is the charging time of voltage 0V~ 2Ucc/3 (the time represented by tp).2. Charging time Tp=1.1RC3. It can be used as a timing circuit, and the time can be determined by RC.Example: Timing Circuit Design (1s delay time)Figure 8. 555 Timer Delay Circuit ExampleⅣ Classic 555 Timer Circuits DiagramsThere are A LOT of projects out there using the 555 in various ways and it’s easy to find schematics to make a project that has already been proven. Here lists some typical projects using 555 timer in circuits. Let’s have a look. 🔺 Car Tachometer🔺 SIREN🔺 Flashing Lights🔺 Knight Rider Circuit🔺 Laser Ray🔺 Latch🔺 LED Dimmer🔺 555 Amplifier🔺 Light Detector🔺 Machine Gun🔺 Metal Detector🔺 Motor PWM🔺 Music Box🔺 Zener Diode Tester Ⅴ 555 Timer IC Modes555 timer will use different models in different circuits to meet circuit requirements. Therefore, it has many derivative models produced by different companies with different pin functions, and uses CMOS design. What;s more, some chips include several integrated 555 timers. Some common models of the 555 chip family are as follows:ManufacturerModelRemarksCustom Silicon SolutionsCSS555/CSS555CCMOS chip, minimum working voltage 1.2V, IDD < 5µACEMIULY7855*ECG SemiconductorsECG955MTimer Single Rc-type OscillatorExarXR-555Highly stable controllerFairchildNE555/KA555Time-delay or mono-stableHarrisHA555*IK SemiconILC555CMOS chip, minimum working voltage 2VTexas InstrumentsSE555/NE555*RenesasICM7555CMOS RC timersLithic SystemsLC555Available in Industry's Smallest 8-Bump DSBGAMaximICM7555CMOS RC timers, minimum working voltage 2VMotorolaMC1455/MC1555Monolithic timerNational SemiconductorLM1455/LM555/LM555C*National SemiconductorLMC555CMOS chip, minimum working voltage 1.5VNTE SylvaniaNTE955MAccurate time delaysRaytheonRM555/RC555*RCACA555/CA555C*STMicroelectronicsNE555N/ K3T647*Texas InstrumentsSN52555/SN72555*Texas InstrumentsTLC555CMOS chip, minimum working voltage 2VZetexZSCT1555Precision single cell timerNXPICM7555CMOSHitachi SemiconductorHA17555Accurate time delays or oscillations Frequently Asked Questions about 555 Timer Circuit1. What does a 555 timer do in a circuit?The 555 timer IC is a very cheap, popular and useful precision timing device which can act as either a simple timer to generate single pulses or long time delays, or as a relaxation oscillator producing a string of stabilised waveforms of varying duty cycles from 50 to 100%. 2. How much voltage can a 555 timer take?The standard TTL 555 can operate from a supply voltage between 4.5 volts and 18 volts, with its output voltage approximately 2 volts lower than its supply voltage VCC. The 555 can source or sink a maximum output current of 200mA, (but it may get hot at this level), so the circuit variations are unlimited. 3. What are the modes of operation of a timer?The timer registers can be used in two modes. These modes areTimer mode and the Counter mode. The only difference between these two modes is the source for incrementing the timer registers. 4. What are the basic operation modes of the 555 timer?The operating modes of a 555 timer are astable, bistable and monostable. Each mode of operation signifies with a circuit diagram and its output. 5. What is the maximum frequency of a 555 timer?2MHzaccording to the website, the 555 timer has a maximum frequency of 2MHz.

IntroductionAs everyone knows, in order to create a passive low pass filter, combing resistive elements with reactive elements happens often. Put simply, a typical circuit composed of resistors and capacitors or inductors. According to theories, the resistor–inductor (RL) low-pass topology is equivalent to the resistor-capacitor (RC) low-pass topology in terms of filtering capability. However. in fact, RC low pass filters are more common, so this article will focus on first-order RC low pass filters.In this video, Passive RC Low Pass Filter has been discussed. CatalogIntroductionⅠ Typical RC Circuit1.1 Time Domain1.2 Frequency DomainⅡ First-order Low Pass Filter on Software2.1 Basic Filtering Algorithm2.2 Basic Algorithm of First-order RC Digital FilteringⅢ Optimization Method- Filtering Coefficients AdjustmentⅠ Typical RC CircuitThe RC circuit has thousands of uses and is a very important circuit to study. Not only can it be used to time circuits, it can also be used to filter out unwanted frequencies in a circuit and used in power supplies, like the one for your computer, to help turn ac voltage to dc voltage.Figure 1. Typical RC Circuit (DC, AC, and Pulse Signals can all use it)1.1 Time DomainCapacitor Current:According to Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:Where, the unit of Ui is volts, the unit of RC is seconds, and τ=RC, get:Suppose the initial voltage of the capacitor is 0, where:R=1000ΩC=4.7uFUi=1Vt=0.0001~0.1sτ=RCVc(τ)=0.632 Figure 2. Step Response Curve of a First-order RC System1.2 Frequency DomainTaking the capacitor voltage as the output, the network function of the circuit is:Where u1=Ui, u2=UoLet ωc be equal to:, which is the cut-off frequency.Amplitude and phase angle function:Value of variables:R=1000ΩC=4.7uF |A(fc)|=0.707θ(fc)=-45, f=0.001, 1, …….100000.Amplitude and phase frequency characteristics:Figure 3.Figure 4.Logarithmic representation of amplitude-frequency characteristic:Figure 5.Analysis:When ω<ωc, the amplitude is a straight line parallel to the coordinate, and there is no attenuation.　When ω>ωc, it is a straight line whose slope is proportional to -20dB/decade.When ω=ωc, the gain is attenuated to 0.707, which is -3dB, and the phase lags by 45 degrees, corresponding to a low-pass filter. This frequency is usually called the cutoff frequency. Disadvantages:When using this analog filter to suppress low-frequency interference, the filter is required to have a larger time constant and a high-precision RC network. Increasing the time constant requires increasing the value of R, and meanwhile, the leakage current increases accordingly, thereby reducing the filtering effect.Figure 6. RC CircuitⅡ First-order Low Pass Filter on SoftwareAdvantages1) The use of digital filtering algorithms to achieve dynamic RC filtering can well overcome the shortcomings of analog filters.2) This kind of algorithm is more practical when the simulation constant is required.3) It has a good inhibitory effect on periodic interference.4) Save RAM space Disadvantages1) Exit phase lag, resulting in low sensitivity.2) It cannot filter out interference with a frequency higher than half of the sampling frequency (called the Nyquist frequency. For example, if the sampling frequency is 100 Hz, it cannot filter out interference signals above 50Hz). In this case, an analog filter should be used.3) For the single-chip microcomputer without multiplication and division running instructions, the workload of the program operation is relatively large.2.1 Basic Filtering AlgorithmOrigin of the AlgorithmThe transfer function of the first-order RC low-pass filter in the S domain for frequency analysis:Through z-transformation (there are many methods, such as first-order forward difference, bilinear transformation, etc. Here, the first-order backward difference method is used): Into the S-domain Transfer Function After the derivation is transformed into the difference equation, we can get:The transfer function in the S domain can be transformed into a difference equation in the time domain through the Z transformation.2.2 Basic Algorithm of First-order RC Digital FilteringX is the input, Y is the output value after filtering, then: a is a parameter related to the RC value, called the filter coefficient, its value determines the weight of the new sample value in the filtering result of this time, and its value is usually far less than 1, when the sampling interval t is small enough:1) The smaller the filtering coefficient, the smoother the filtering result, but the lower the sensitivity.2) The larger the filtering coefficient, the higher the sensitivity, but the more unstable the filtering result.3) The output value this time mainly depends on the last filtered output value, and the current sampled value has a relatively small effect on this output, which plays a corrective role.4) Cutoff frequencyFor example: t=0.5s (f=2Hz), a=1/32where fl=(1/32)/(2*3.14*0.5)=0.01Hz Basic ProgramWrite the program according to the basic principles and formulas of first-order filter, as follows:/*In the program, integer arithmetic is faster than decimal arithmetic. In order to speed up the processing speed of the program, for calculation convenience, a is an integer (from 0~255), 1-a is replaced by 256-a, which means that the new sample value is being filtered. The weight in the result (you can also change the base of 1-a to 100-a, and the calculation result will be processed accordingly)*/#define a 128 char value; //Last filtering valuechar filter(){    char new_value;    new_value=get_ad();//Sampling value    return(256-a)*value/256+a*new_value/256；}Initial Optimization of the ProgramReduce the number of operations of multiplication and division to increase the speed of operations.Specific optimization methods:First compare the new sampled value with the previous filtering result, and then use different formula calculations based on the comparison, so that the calculation efficiency of the program is doubled.Resolve the basic formula to get: ProcessNotes:S → New Sampling ValueR → Previous Filtering ResultC→ Filter CoefficientN→ New Filtering Result Program/*Int: NEW_DATA     New sampling values       OLD_DATA       Last filtering result       k        Filter coefficient (0~255)  Out:         The filtering results */ char filter_1(char NEW_DATA,char OLD_DATA,char k){    int result;    if(NEW_DATA<OLD_DATA)    {        result=OLD_DATA-NEW_DATA;        result=result*k;        result=result+128;//+128 Round Up        result=result/256;        result=OLD_DATA-result;    }    else if(NEW_DATA>OLD_DATA)    {        result=NEW_DATA-OLD_DATA;        result=result*k;        result=result+128;//+128 Round Up        result=result/256;        result=OLD_DATA-result;    }    else result=OLD_DATA;    return((char)result);} Filtering AnalysisWhen the filtering coefficient is 30:Figure 7.When the filtering coefficient is 128:Figure 8.When the filtering coefficient is 200:Figure 9.It can be seen that the smaller the filtering coefficient, the smoother the filtering result, but the lower the sensitivity. On the contrary, the larger the filtering coefficient, the higher the sensitivity, but the more unstable the filtering result.Insufficient1) The contradiction between sensitivity and smoothness2) Errors caused by discarding decimals.For example: the current sampling value=25, the last filtering result=24, and the filtering coefficient=10;According to the algorithm, the filtering result of this time = 24.0390625In single-chip microcomputers, floating-point numbers are rarely used, and the fractional part is either discarded or needs to round up. In this way, the result is 24. If the sampling value is always 25, the result will always be 24. Because the filtering result and the actual data will always have an error that cannot be eliminated. Sometimes it will cause the filtering result curve to deviate from the actual value when the sampling data is stable at a certain value (that is, there is a large error between the filtering result and the actual result although in a stable case). Be Careful1) Changing the filtering coefficient, increasing it will reduce the smoothness, and if it is too large, the filtering will lose its meaning.2) The use of decimal part in calculations will bring heavy computational pressure to the CPU. Ⅲ Optimization Method- Filtering Coefficients AdjustmentRealize the Function1) When the data changes rapidly, the filtering results can be followed up in time, and the faster the data changes, the higher the sensitivity should be (sensitivity priority principle).2) When the data becomes stable and oscillates within a range, the filtering result can become stable (the principle of stability first).3) When the data is stable, the filtering result can be approximated and finally equal to the sampling data (eliminate the error caused by decimals in the calculation). Judgment before Adjustment1) Whether the data changes consistently. For example, when the two consecutive sampling values are larger than the previous filtering result, it is normal, otherwise it is regarded as inconsistent.2) Whether the data changes quickly, which is to judge the difference between the sampling value and the previous filtering result.Adjustment Principle1) When the two data changes are inconsistent, it means there is jitter. Clear the filtering coefficient to zero, and delete the new sampling value.2) When the data changes consistently, gradually increase the filtering coefficient to provide the weight of this sampling.3) When the data changes quickly (difference value> debounce count acceleration response threshold), the filtering coefficient should be increased quickly. Adjusting Filter Coefficient Process① Calculate the difference (absolute value) between the current sampling value and the last filtering result; Set the data change direction flag.② Two changes in the same direction?③ First order filter coefficient + coefficient increment (the maximum value is taken when the result is greater than the maximum value). Several Constant Parameters and Their Ranges1. Debounce counting acceleration response threshold is determined according to the actual situation.2. The maximum value of debounce count, which is generally 10.3. The increment of filtering coefficient range is 10~30.4. The maximum value of the filtering coefficient is generally 255.Before starting the first-order filtering program, open the adjustment filter coefficient program to adjust the coefficients in real time. Filtering Effect1. When the sampled data is accidentally interfered, the interference in the filtering result is completely filtered out.2. When the data oscillates within a range, the filtering result curve is very smooth, almost a straight line.3. When the sampling data has real changes, the filtering results can be followed up in a relatively timely manner.4. When the sampling data becomes stable, the filtering result gradually approaches and is finally equal to it.Finally, improve the algorithm. Taking into account the requirements of sensitivity and stability; and meanwhile, it does not consume too much RAM space. As long as a few constants are adjusted reasonably, the algorithm is more suitable for practical applications. Frequently Asked Questions about RC Low Pass Filter1. What is RC low pass filter?A low pass filter is a filter which passes low-frequency signals and blocks, or impedes, high-frequency signals. ... Low pass filters can be constructed using resistors with either capacitors or inductors. A low pass filter composed of a resistor and a capacitor is called a low pass RC filter. 2. Why RC circuit is low pass filter?Then by carefully selecting the correct resistor-capacitor combination, we can create a RC circuit that allows a range of frequencies below a certain value to pass through the circuit unaffected while any frequencies applied to the circuit above this cut-off point to be attenuated, creating what is commonly called a rc low pass fiter. 3. What is difference between RC low pass filter and RC high pass filter?Low pass filter is the type of frequency domain filter that is used for smoothing the image. It attenuates the high frequency components and preserves the low frequency components. High pass filter: ... It attenuates the low frequency components and preserves the high frequency components. 4. What is the transfer function of a low pass filter?Low Pass Filters and their Transfer FunctionsAs its name implies, a low pass filter is an electronic device that allows low frequency AC signals to pass a current through the filter circuit. The output from the filter circuit will be attenuated, depending on the frequency of the input signal. 5. How is low pass filter frequency calculated?The cut-off frequency or -3dB point, can be found using the standard formula, ƒc = 1/(2πRC). The phase angle of the output signal at ƒc and is -45o for a Low Pass Filter.

IntroductionCurrent divider equations and voltage divider formulas help you better understand resistor functions in electronic circuits. The current divider circuit is a parallel circuit in which the source current or power supply current divided into a multiple parallel paths. In a parallel circuit, the terminals of all components are connected together, sharing the same two end nodes. This results in the current to flow or pass through different paths and branches. However, the current through each component can have a different value. While a voltage divider circuit is a very common circuit that takes a higher voltage and converts it to a lower one by using a pair of resistors.The main feature of a parallel circuit is that, although the branch circuit currents are different, the voltages of all connection paths are the same. Therefore, there is no need to find the voltage of each resistor, so that the branch current can be easily found by Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) and Ohm's law.Figure 1. Voltage and Current Divider Current CircuitsCatalogIntroductionⅠ Resistive Voltage Divider CircuitⅡ Resistive Current Divider CircuitⅢ Duality (Electrical Circuits)Ⅳ Frequently Asked Questions about Resistor Voltage Divider and Current Divider Rules and FormulasIn this section, through the discussion of the commonly used resistor series voltage divider circuit and resistors in parallel divider circuit to find their rules. This article contains plenty of equations based on Kirchhoff's current law and Ohm's law for you to master voltage divider and current divider circuits.  A Discussion of the Useful Voltage Divider and Current Divider Circuits.Ⅰ Resistive Voltage Divider CircuitIn electronics, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a passive linear circuit that produces an output voltage that is a fraction of its input voltage. It is a simple circuit which turns a large voltage into a smaller one. The basic voltage divider circuit with two resistors in series as shown in the Figure 2. is analyzed, and some useful formulas are obtained:Figure 2. Basic Voltage Divider CircuitThe following equation is given by Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL):The following equation is given by Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL):Equation of voltage current relation of circuit elements:Substituting the Ohm's law of the resistance element into the KVL equation, the calculation formula for the current i is obtained:Then substitute it into the Ohm's law of the resistance element, the voltage division formula for calculating the resistance voltage is obtained:Generally speaking, when N resistors are connected in series, the voltage on the Kth resistor can be calculated according to the following voltage division formula:The resistor series voltage divider formula shows the relationship between the voltage of a certain resistor and the total voltage. The voltage division formula expresses that the voltage of a resistor is proportional to its resistance value, that is, when the resistance increases, the voltage also increases.According to the voltage reference direction obtained by the above voltage divider circuit formula, it can be seen that it has nothing to do with the selection of the current reference direction. When the reference direction of the voltage variable uk or us involved in the formula changes, a negative sign will appear in the formula.As shown in the Figure 3, find the voltage Uab when R=0Ω, 4Ω, 12Ω, ...∞.Figure 3. Voltage Reference DirectionThe voltage Uac and Ubc can be obtained by using the resistor series voltage divider formula:Substituting the resistance R into the above formula, after obtaining the voltage Ubc, then using KVL to obtain the voltage Uab, the calculation result is as follows:It can be seen from the calculation results that as the resistance R increases, the voltage Ubc gradually decreases, and the voltage Uab changes from negative to positive, indicating that its actual direction will varies with the change of the resistance R.The Figure 4. below shows the dual-supply DC voltage divider circuit. Try to find the range of potential change at point a when the sliding end of the potentiometer moves.Figure 4. Dual-supply DC Voltage Divider CircuitSolution: Replace the two potentials of +12V and -12V with two voltage sources to obtain the circuit shown in Figure 4. (b).When the sliding end of the potentiometer moves to the bottom end, the potential at point a is the same as that at point c:When the sliding end of the potentiometer moves to the top, the potential at point a is the same as that at point b:When the sliding end of the potentiometer gradually moves from bottom to top, the potential at point a will continuously change between -10V to 10V.Here discusses the change law of load current i and voltage u when an actual supply powers to a variable resistor load. As shown in the Figure 5, RL is a variable resistance load, and R0 represents the internal resistance of the power supply:Figure 5. Variable Resistor LoadLoad current i:Among them, k=RL/R0 represents the ratio of the load resistance to the internal resistance of the power supply, and isc=us/R0 represents the current when the load is short-circuited.Load voltage u:Among them, uoc=us represents the voltage when the load is open.Power absorbed by load resistor:When the coefficient k=RL/R0 takes different values, a series of relative values of current, voltage and power are calculated, as shown in the following table:K=RL/R000.20.40.60.81.02.03.04.05.0∞i/isc10.8330.7140.6250.5550.50.3330.250.20.1670u/uoc00.1670.2860.3750.4440.50.6670.750.80.8331p/pimax00.5560.8160.9380.98810.8890.750.640.5560According to the above data, the curve of voltage, current and power changing with load resistance can be drawn, as shown in the Figure 6:They show:1. When the load resistance gradually increases from zero, the load current gradually changes from the maximum value isc=us/R0 to zero. When the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the power supply, the current is equal to half of the maximum value.2. When the load resistance gradually increases from zero, the load voltage gradually increases from zero to the maximum value uoc=us. When the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the power supply, the voltage is equal to half of the maximum value.3. When the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the power supply, the current is equal to half of the maximum value, the voltage is equal to half of the maximum value, and the power absorbed by the load resistance reaches the maximum value, and pmax=0.25uocisc.The non-linear change law of the current when the load resistance changes can be seen from the resistance scale of an ordinary multimeter. The circuit model of a multimeter electric blocking is a series connection of a voltage source and a resistor. When we use a multimeter to measure unknown resistance, we should first short-circuit the multimeter and adjust the zero potentiometer pointer to 0Ω. At this time, the current is the largest and the meter pointer is fully deflected. When the short-circuit wire is removed, the pointer of the multimeter returns to ∞, and the measured current is zero at this time.When the multimeter is connected to the measured resistor, as the resistance value changes, the current of the meter head will change accordingly, the pointer will be deflected to the corresponding position, and the measured resistance value can be directly read according to the scale on the surface. There is a special case, when the measured resistance value is just equal to the internal resistance of the multimeter, the current is half of the full deflection current, and the pointer stays in the middle position. Conversely, the internal resistance can be known from the reading in the middle of the multimeter’s electrical barrier scale. For example, the reading of a 500-type multimeter when the pointer stays in the middle position is 10, the internal resistance when using a ×1k electrical barrier is 10kΩ, and the internal resistance is 1kΩ when using a ×100 electrical barrier. If necessary, use Voltage Divider Calculator to calculate the output voltage of a resistor divider circuit for a given set of resistor values and source voltage. Ⅱ Resistive Current Divider CircuitA current divider is defined as a linear circuit that produces an output current that is a fraction of its input current. The following formula describing a current divider is similar in form to that for the voltage divider. The Figure 7. shows a circuit in which a current source supplies power to two parallel resistors, and some useful formulas are drawn from its analysis. Figure 7. Resistive Current Divider CircuitThe following equation is given by Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL):The following equation is given by Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL):Equation of current voltage relation of circuit elements:Substituting the Ohm's law of the resistance element into the KCL equation, the calculation formula for the voltage u is obtained:Then substitute Ohm's law into the resistive current divider equation for calculating the resistor current:The resistive current divider formula of two parallel resistors expressed by resistance parameters is:Generally speaking, when n resistors are connected in parallel, the current on the Kth resistor can be calculated according to the following formula:The resistive current divider in parallel formula indicates the relationship between the current of a resistor and the total current. It shows that the resistance current is proportional to its conductance value. For example, the current will increases when the conductance increases.According to the current reference direction obtained by the above formula, it can be seen that it has nothing to do with the selection of the voltage reference direction. When the reference direction of the current is or ik changes, a negative sign will appear in the formula.Figure 8. Resistive Divider CircuitAccording to the characteristics of two resistors in parallel, the current in the 3Ω and 6Ω resistors is obtained:Then, the current in the 12Ω and 6Ω resistors is obtained:Calculate the current i5 in the short-circuit line according to the KCL equation of node a:i5 can also be calculated according to the KCL equation of node b:It should be noted that the current i5=1A in the short circuit is different from the total current.  If necessary, the Current Divider Calculator can be used to determine the current going through any branch in a parallel circuit. Enter a current source and resistance values to calculate the current through each resistor. The calculator will display the current through each resistor entered. Ⅲ Duality (Electrical Circuits)According to the above-mentioned analysis of the resistive voltage divider circuit and current divider circuit, there is a certain similarity between them.Figure 9. Duality Circuit ExamplesThe equations of the resistor divider circuit are listed as follows:It can be seen that the equations of these two circuits have a dual relationship. If the current i in the KCL equation of a certain circuit is replaced with the voltage u, the KVL equation of another circuit is obtained; the voltage u in the KVL equation of a certain circuit is replaced with the current i, and the KCL equation of another circuit is obtained. This similar relationship in circuit structure is called topological duality. Similarly, replace u in the VCR equation of a certain circuit with i, i with u, R with G, G with R, etc., you can get the VCR equation of another circuit. This similar relationship of the element VCR equation is called element duality. If two circuits are both topological duality and component duality, they are called dual circuits.The circuit equations of the dual circuit are dual, and the various formulas and results derived therefrom are also dual. For example, the dual formula derived for the dual circuit of Figure 9 (a) and (b) is as follows:This section is a simple analysis of dual circuits, dual formulas, dual theorems and dual analysis methods in order to better grasp the basic concepts of circuit theory and various analysis methods. Here are a few test questions that can be used to test how well you learn about voltage divider and current divider circuits:1) Find the voltages u1 and u2 in the circuit shown in the following figure:2) Find the current i1 and i2 in the circuit shown in the following figure:3) Find the current i2, is and voltage u in the circuit shown in the following figure: Ⅳ Frequently Asked Questions about Resistor Voltage Divider and Current Divider Rules and Formulas1. What is VDR and CDR?The Voltage Divider Rule formula (VDR) shows how the voltage distributes among different resistors in a series circuit. Similarly, the Current Divider Rule formula (CDR) shows how current distributes in a parallel circuit. 2. What is the current divider rule with examples?When two resistors are connected in a parallel circuit, the current in any branches will be a fraction of the total current (IT)). If both the resistors are of equal value, then the current will divide equally through both the branches. 3. Why does a voltage divider need two resistors?One resistor can be used to drop voltage (if the load draws current) but to divide voltage you need something to create a division ratio. To be a voltage divider the output voltage needs to be a constant proportion of the input voltage. ... Note that this need for two resistors only applies to DC. 4. Where are current divider used?By using a current divider, the current flowing through a component can be minimized and thus smaller component size can be used. For example, in a case where larger resistor wattage is required; adding multiple resistors in parallel decreases the heat dissipation, and smaller wattage resistors can do the same job. 5. What is voltage divider formula?A voltage divider is applying a voltage across a series of two resistors. We may draw in a few different ways, but they should always essentially be the same circuit. Thus formula is given as follows: V_{out} = frac{R_b}{R_a+R_b} times V_{in}