The Kynix Blog

SummaryDo you think that electornics and light one day can go well toghther on a standard‘CMOS' chip one day? It's reported that researchers have succeeded in introducting a light connection into the heart of a semiconductor chip a few days. In this way,two circuits can communicate.Or: the worlds of electronics and photonics are connected. BodyWhat is particularly attractive is researcher of the university of Twente--Satadal Dutta's solution--A light connection into the heart of a semiconductor chip. There is no special materials or manufacturing processes are needed: the light comes from silicon. The light source, detector and the light channel can be made using the technology that is used to make the electronic circuits. Fully optical circuits are available nowadays, but they use materials like indium phosphide and gallium arsenide, which can't easily be combined with the CMOS chip processes used for semiconductor chips you'll find in today's smartphones.  Connecting WorldsThere is a predictions say that all-optical circuits may become the‘new electronics'. In the transition from electronic to optic circuits, hybrid circuits, like the one Dutta designed, could play an important role. Satadal Dutta (1990, Barrackpore, India) did his PhD research in the Semiconductor Components group of Prof Jurriaan Schmitz, together with the Integrated Circuit Design group of Prof. Bram Nauta. Dutta defended his thesis 'Avalanche-mode silicon LEDs for monolithic optical coupling in CMOS technology' on 8 November. It was supported financially by NWO-TTW in The Netherlands and by NXP Semiconductors.  Avalanche LEDThe alternative would be: make a LED out of silicon. And that's the problem: silicon only emits a tiny amount of infrared light, while a detector made out of silicon needs visible light. They are talking and listening at different wavelengths. Dutta therefore chooses a remarkable way out: connect the LED reverse. At low voltages, there's no current, but at a voltage that is high enough, there will be a small current that amplifies itself like an avalanche. In this 'avalanche mode', the LED will transmit visible light. Using the same process, the light detector, as well as the light channel in-between can be made. Thanks to the special comb structure that Dutta designed, the light source gets more uniform and energy efficient. IsolationAn optical link on a chip is a good way to 'galvanically' isolate two circuits from each other. This is often necessary in cases where one circuit is a low-voltage and low-current one, while the other is a high-power circuit. They should be connected, but not by conducting wires, for reasons of safety. A classic transformer is an option then, but an optical connection is often used as well. Until now, this is a separate 'optocoupler', which is large and has a limited bit rate. Dutta's new solution is much more compact as an alternative: it total, it is just a few tens of microns and it offers the protection that's needed. Compared to optical channels in full-optical circuits, the energy consumption is relatively high, as there is quite some scattering of light. On the other hand: designing the electronics around the optical link in an efficient way, the amount of light needed for a successful connection, can be kept to a minimum. 

IntroductionEver wondered how your camera flash charges so quickly or why your computer doesn't lose memory when you briefly unplug it? The humble capacitor is behind these technological marvels, quietly storing and releasing electrical energy exactly when needed.For electronics enthusiasts and professionals alike, understanding how capacitors work is fundamental to mastering circuit design. These seemingly simple components serve as the unsung heroes of modern electronics, functioning as temporary energy reservoirs that can discharge in an instant or hold charge for extended periods.According to recent industry data, the global capacitor market reached 24.6billionin2022,withprojectedgrowthtoexceed24.6 billion in 2022, with projected growth to exceed 24.6billionin2022,withprojectedgrowthtoexceed30 billion by 2027. This explosive growth reflects their critical importance across virtually every electronic device we use daily.In this comprehensive guide, we'll demystify capacitors, explore their various types, explain how to select the right one for your project, and examine how they compare to other energy storage solutions.What Is a Capacitor and How Does It Work?A capacitor is essentially an electronic component designed to store and release electrical energy. Unlike resistors that dissipate energy or inductors that store energy in magnetic fields, capacitors store energy in an electric field between two conductive plates.The Basic Working PrincipleAt its most fundamental level, a capacitor consists of:Two conductive plates (typically metal)A dielectric material (insulator) between the platesTerminals connecting to each plateWhen you apply voltage across a capacitor, something fascinating happens. Electrons accumulate on one plate, creating a negative charge, while the opposite plate develops a positive charge as electrons are drawn away. This separation of charge creates an electric field across the dielectric, storing energy that can later be released back into the circuit."Capacitors are like the springs of the electronic world – they absorb energy when stretched and release it when allowed to contract." – Dr. James Maxwell, Electrical Engineering ProfessorThe ability of a capacitor to store charge is measured in farads (F), though most practical capacitors use smaller units like microfarads (μF) or picofarads (pF).The Mathematical FoundationFor those interested in the science behind capacitors, the basic relationship is defined by the equation:Q = C × VWhere:Q is the charge stored (in coulombs)C is the capacitance (in farads)V is the voltage across the capacitor (in volts)This simple relationship illustrates that larger capacitors can store more charge at the same voltage, which explains why capacitor size often correlates with its storage capacity.This video provides an excellent visual demonstration of the basic principles behind capacitor operation.Types of Capacitors and Their ApplicationsNot all capacitors are created equal. Depending on the application, different types offer various advantages in terms of capacity, voltage rating, leakage, and physical size.Ceramic CapacitorsCeramic capacitors are among the most common and versatile types available. They're constructed with a ceramic dielectric material between two metallic plates.Key characteristics:Small physical sizeLow to moderate capacitance (typically pF to μF range)Non-polarized (can be connected in either direction)Inexpensive and widely availableStable across a wide temperature rangeThese capacitors are extensively used in high-frequency applications, timing circuits, and as bypass or coupling capacitors in electronic devices. According to a Grand View Research report, ceramic capacitors account for over 50% of the global capacitor market.Electrolytic CapacitorsWhen higher capacitance values are needed, electrolytic capacitors are often the go-to choice. These capacitors use an electrolyte solution as one of their plates.Key characteristics:Much higher capacitance values (typically μF to F range)Polarized (must be connected in the correct direction)Larger physical size compared to ceramic capacitorsHigher leakage currentLimited lifetime, especially at higher temperaturesElectrolytic capacitors are commonly used in power supply filtering, audio equipment, and anywhere large capacitance values are required in a relatively compact package.Pro Tip: Always check the polarity markings on electrolytic capacitors before installation. Reverse connection can cause them to fail catastrophically, sometimes even exploding!Film CapacitorsFilm capacitors use a thin plastic film as their dielectric, offering an excellent balance of performance characteristics.Key characteristics:Very low leakage currentExcellent stability and reliabilitySelf-healing properties (can recover from minor internal breakdowns)Good for high voltage applicationsNon-polarizedThese capacitors excel in audio applications, timing circuits, and power factor correction. Their precision and stability make them ideal for applications where accurate values are critical.For specialized applications, you might also encounter:Tantalum capacitors: High reliability, compact sizeSupercapacitors: Extremely high capacitance valuesVariable capacitors: Adjustable capacitance for tuning circuitsVacuum capacitors: High power RF applicationsEach type has found its niche in the vast ecosystem of electronic design, with manufacturers like Kynix offering comprehensive selections for different applications.How to Choose the Right CapacitorSelecting the appropriate capacitor for your application involves considering several key specifications:Critical SpecificationsCapacitance Value: Measured in farads (or subdivisions like μF, nF, pF), this determines how much charge the capacitor can store.Voltage Rating: The maximum voltage the capacitor can safely handle without breakdown.Tolerance: The allowed variation from the specified capacitance value (often ±5%, ±10%, or ±20%).Temperature Coefficient: How the capacitance changes with temperature.Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR): The internal resistance that affects efficiency and heat generation.Important Note: Always choose capacitors with voltage ratings at least 50% higher than the expected circuit voltage. This safety margin helps prevent premature failures and extends component life.Application-Based SelectionApplicationRecommended Capacitor TypeTypical ValuesKey ConsiderationsPower supply filteringElectrolytic100μF - 10,000μFHigh capacitance, voltage ratingSignal couplingCeramic or film0.1μF - 10μFFrequency response, non-polarizedTiming circuitsFilm or ceramic1nF - 1μFStability, precisionRF circuitsCeramic1pF - 1nFLow ESR, high-frequency performanceAudio equipmentFilm0.1μF - 10μFLow distortion, precisionWhen in doubt, consult the capacitor specifications guide provided by manufacturers or reference design documentation.This video demonstrates practical tips for selecting the right capacitor for different circuit applications.Real-World Applications of CapacitorsHow often do you use capacitors without even realizing it? Probably dozens of times daily! These versatile components appear in virtually every electronic device.Power Supply Smoothing and FilteringOne of the most common uses of capacitors is in power supplies. When converting AC to DC power, the resulting output often contains ripples or fluctuations. Capacitors act as reservoirs that charge during voltage peaks and discharge during valleys, resulting in a smoother DC output.This smoothing function is critical for sensitive electronics that require stable power. In fact, the efficiency of modern power supplies heavily depends on the quality and configuration of their filtering capacitors.Timing and Oscillator CircuitsHave you ever wondered how your microwave knows exactly when 30 seconds have elapsed? Capacitor-based timing circuits are likely responsible!When paired with resistors, capacitors create RC circuits that can precisely control timing functions. The predictable charge and discharge rates allow engineers to design circuits that generate specific time delays or oscillations at particular frequencies.These RC timing circuits form the foundation of numerous applications:Clock generators in computersTimers in household appliancesFlash timing in camerasPWM controllers in motor drivesEnergy Storage and Rapid DischargeSome applications require delivering large amounts of energy in an extremely short time – something batteries typically can't accomplish. This is where capacitors shine.For example:Camera flashes charge a capacitor slowly, then discharge it rapidly to create a bright flashDefibrillators store energy in capacitors before delivering a life-saving shockParticle accelerators use massive capacitor banks for pulse power applicationsIn the automotive industry, some vehicles now use supercapacitors alongside batteries to provide the burst power needed for acceleration while recovering energy during braking.My Take: Having worked with capacitors in various designs, I've found their energy storage capabilities particularly fascinating. The ability to deliver enormous power in milliseconds makes them irreplaceable in many applications where batteries simply can't respond quickly enough.Diagram showing how capacitors are used in a camera flash circuit, illustrating the charge/discharge cycleCapacitors vs. Batteries: Understanding the DifferencesAlthough both capacitors and batteries store electrical energy, they function based on fundamentally different principles and excel in different applications.Key DifferencesEnergy Storage Mechanism: Capacitors store energy in an electric field between plates; batteries store energy through chemical reactions.Energy Density: Batteries typically have 10-100 times higher energy density than standard capacitors (though supercapacitors are narrowing this gap).Charge/Discharge Rate: Capacitors can charge and discharge extremely quickly—often in milliseconds—while batteries typically require minutes to hours.Cycle Life: Capacitors can endure millions of charge-discharge cycles; most rechargeable batteries are limited to hundreds or thousands of cycles.Self-Discharge: Capacitors typically lose their charge much faster than batteries when not in use.According to research published in the Journal of Energy Storage, the ideal energy storage system would combine the high energy density of batteries with the rapid charge/discharge capabilities of capacitors.When to Use EachUse capacitors when you need:Rapid charge/discharge cyclesLong cycle life (millions of operations)Pulse power deliveryHigh power densityOperation across wide temperature rangesUse batteries when you need:Long-term energy storageHigh energy densitySlow, steady power deliveryPortable power sourcesStable voltage output over discharge timeIn many modern designs, engineers are creating hybrid systems that leverage the strengths of both technologies. For instance, some electric vehicles use batteries for range and capacitors for regenerative braking and acceleration assistance.This video explores the differences between capacitors and batteries in practical applications.Troubleshooting and Maintaining CapacitorsEven the best capacitors can fail, and knowing how to identify and address issues is crucial for electronics enthusiasts and professionals alike.Common Capacitor FailuresPhysical Bulging: Electrolytic capacitors may bulge at the top when internal pressure builds up due to overheating or aging.Leakage: Both physical electrolyte leakage and electrical leakage (current passing through the dielectric) can occur.Change in Capacitance: Capacitors can drift from their rated values over time or due to environmental factors.ESR Increase: Higher equivalent series resistance reduces effectiveness and increases heat generation.Dielectric Breakdown: When exposed to voltages beyond their rating, the insulating properties of the dielectric can fail.How to Test CapacitorsTesting capacitors doesn't have to be complicated. Here are some approaches:Using a Multimeter:Discharge the capacitor safelySet the multimeter to capacitance mode (if available)Connect the probes to the capacitor terminalsCompare the reading to the rated valueESR Meters: For more advanced testing, an ESR meter can identify capacitors with increased internal resistance before they fail completely.Visual Inspection:Look for bulging tops on electrolytic capacitorsCheck for leaking electrolyte or damaged casingsInspect PCB for discoloration around capacitor mounting pointsCommon Mistakes to Avoid:Never test charged capacitors – they can damage your meter and cause injuryDon't assume a capacitor is good just because it measures the correct capacitance – ESR issues may still existAvoid touching capacitor terminals on high-voltage circuits even when powered off – they may still hold a chargeDon't replace capacitors with units that have lower voltage ratings than specified[Insert image: A photo showing a failed electrolytic capacitor with a bulging top compared to a healthy capacitor]Quick Checklist for Working with CapacitorsWhen designing, troubleshooting, or replacing capacitors, keep these points in mind:✓ Verify the required capacitance value and tolerance✓ Ensure voltage rating exceeds circuit maximum by at least 50%✓ Check polarity for electrolytic capacitors✓ Consider temperature rating for the application environment✓ Account for physical size constraints in your design✓ Select the appropriate dielectric type for frequency response✓ Discharge capacitors before handling or testing✓ Use proper desoldering techniques when replacing capacitors✓ Check for signs of failure in nearby components when a capacitor failsFAQ About CapacitorsWhat is the basic function of a capacitor?A capacitor's primary function is to store electrical energy in an electric field. It can quickly charge and discharge, making it useful for filtering, coupling signals, timing circuits, and providing short bursts of power.How do I know if a capacitor is polarized?Polarized capacitors (like electrolytics) typically have markings indicating the negative terminal, often with a stripe or "-" symbol. They also tend to have a cylindrical shape with one lead longer than the other (the longer lead is usually positive). Non-polarized capacitors (like ceramics) can be connected in either direction.Can capacitors be dangerous?Yes, capacitors can store charge even when disconnected from power sources. Large capacitors used in power supplies, flash units, or high-voltage equipment can hold lethal charges. Always discharge capacitors safely before handling circuits, using a resistor to slowly drain the stored energy.Why do capacitors have different shapes and sizes?The physical characteristics of capacitors vary based on their construction, dielectric material, voltage rating, and capacity. Generally, higher capacitance and voltage ratings require larger physical sizes, though modern manufacturing techniques continue to reduce the size requirements.How long do capacitors last?Capacitor lifespan varies significantly by type. Film capacitors might last 100,000+ hours, while electrolytic capacitors typically last 1,000-10,000 hours at their rated temperature. Factors affecting lifespan include operating temperature, applied voltage, ripple current, and environmental conditions.ConclusionUnderstanding how capacitors work opens the door to mastering countless electronic applications. These seemingly simple components—with their two conductive plates separated by a dielectric—perform critical functions that make modern electronics possible.From smoothing power supplies in your computer to enabling the flash in your smartphone camera, capacitors silently enable the technology we rely on daily. Their ability to store and release energy with precision timing makes them indispensable, while their diverse forms allow engineers to optimize for specific applications.As technology continues to advance, capacitor technology is evolving too. The development of more efficient dielectric materials, higher energy densities, and novel form factors will likely expand their applications even further in fields like renewable energy, electric vehicles, and next-generation computing.Whether you're a hobbyist working on your first circuit or a professional engineer designing complex systems, developing a solid understanding of capacitors provides a foundation for success in electronics. Start by experimenting with different capacitor types in simple circuits, and gradually tackle more complex applications as your confidence grows.Ready to put your knowledge into practice? Visit Kynix to explore a wide range of capacitors for your next electronic project.Last updated: 2025-04-17

With the development of science and technology, electronic products are changing with each passing day. Also, electronic assembly technology is facing challenges. Following the development of electronic technology, people work harder to make innovations in electronic assembly technology.  And in this context, a flexible circuit board invented used which made of the thin-and-flexible polymer film. It can complete the application of surface mounting technology and bend without affecting the normal circuit operation.  Clear Flexible Printed Circuit Catalog I. Brief IntroductionII. Five Main Materials for Flexible Circuit Board2.1 Insulating Firm2.2 Bonding Sheet2.3 Copper Foil2.4 Overburden2.5 Reinforcement PlateFAQ I. Brief Introduction Today's flexible electrons are all made of SMT technology, so they are thin and exquisite with insulation thickness of fewer than 25 μm. It can be bent arbitrarily and rolled into a cylinder. And it makes full use of three-dimensional volume. It breaks the stereotype of the traditional area of use and creates the ability to make full use of the shape of the volume, which can significantly enhance the effective density of use in the length of the conductor currently routinely used per unit area, forming a high-density assembly. In recent years, flexible circuit technology has been applied in various fields, such as radio communication, computer, and automobile electronic equipment. Unlike in the past, flexible circuits have been used as substitutes for rigid cables, and they have been used as substitutes for rigid circuits and printed circuit boards (PCB) in applications where thin or three-dimensional circuits are required. In order to meet the requirements of rigid and flexible applications, it is combined flexible circuit technology in the rigid circuit board, making flexible circuit board used widely. The functions of the flexible circuit board can be divided into four categories, including the lead line, printed circuit, connector, and IntegraTIon of FuncTIon, which covers the computer, Computer peripheral auxiliary system, civil electrical appliances and cars, and other areas. For different applications, the material of the flexible circuit board should select carefully. And the followings are some rules of the five main materials of the flexible circuit board.  II. Five Main Materials for Flexible Circuit Board 2.1 Insulating FirmThe insulating film is flexible and can be used as the insulation carrier of the circuit board to form the basic layer of the circuit. When selecting the flexible dielectric film, the heat resistance, overlay, thickness, mechanical properties and electrical properties of the material should be tested.  Insulation film is usually available on the market, the most common is polyimide and polyester materials. Of all the flexible circuit manufacturers in the United States, nearly 80% use polyimide film as the material for flexible circuits, and about 20% use polyester film. Because polyimide material is nonflammable, stable geometry, high anti-tear, and able to withstand high temperature during welding. 2.2 Bonding Sheet It is made up of two insulating films coated with adhesive, the ability is gluing the film to the foil, and the film to the film in the flexible circuit, In order to provide mechanical support and eliminate stress during insertion of components and connectors. It also can provide protection and electrical insulation. Different types of adhesive sheets can be used for different film substrates, such as polyester bonding sheets and polyimide bonding sheets are different, for example, the polyimide substrate has epoxy resin and acrylic acid. 2.3 Copper FoilCopper foil is a conductor layer that is coated on the insulating substrate and then selectively etched to form a conductive line. The vast majority of this copper foil is rolled copper foil or electrolytic copper foil. The ductility and bending resistance of the rolled copper foil is better than that of the electrolytic copper foil.  The elongation of the rolled copper foil is 20%~45% and the electrolytic copper foil is 4%~40%. The commonly used thickness of copper foil is 35um (1oz), also they have 18um (O.5oz), 70um (2oz), or even 105um (30z). According to different applications, we have to choose different forms of copper foil.  If only to replace wires and connectors, and to reduce manufacturing time and cost, the best choice is electrolytic copper foil. The electrolytic copper foil will increase the weight of copper to level the load capacity of the current, thus obtaining the suitable width of the copper sheet. 2.4 OverburdenThe brand, Novaclad, created by Sheldahl, applies the vacuum metal spraying technology which is a patent. It is a technology that applying a thin layer of pure copper to the surface of a polyimide film, then electroplating into a specific thickness to form the substrate of Novaclad. The base material is used in Novaflex, a flexible circuit without adhesive. After all the circuits have been made, a layer of Novaflex insulation is applied. The Novaflex is designed to work under harsh conditions, and Novaflex without adhesive provides better flexibility, chemical resistance, high-temperature properties, and maximum heat dissipation properties. 2.5 Reinforcement PlateThe reinforced plate to the local position of the flexible plate plays the role of super supporting and strengthening the flexible film substrate, which is convenient for the connection, fixation, or other functions of the PCB. According to different needs, the reinforcement board materials commonly use polyester, polyimide sheet, epoxy fiberglass cloth plate, phenolic-aldehyde paper board, steel plate, aluminum plate, etc.  FAQ 1.What is a flexible circuit board?A flexible printed circuit board features a combination of several printed circuits as well as components that are positioned on a flexible substrate. These circuit boards are also known as flex circuit boards, flex PCBs, flex circuits, or flexible printed circuits. 2. What is flex circuit used for?Flex circuits are often used as connectors in various applications where flexibility, space savings, or production constraints limit the serviceability of rigid circuit boards or hand wiring. A common application of flex circuits is in computer keyboards; most keyboards use flex circuits for the switch matrix. 3. What are flexible circuit boards made of?Flexible circuits are thin, light-weight electrical circuits that conform to small spaces and contoured shapes. They consist of conductive strips of metal, usually copper, encapsulated with an insulating dielectric material made of polyimide or a solder mask. 4. Where are flexible PCBS used?a. Automobiles.b. Consumer electronics including smartphones, SLR cameras and camcorders,c. Medical systems and devices such as heart monitors, pacemakers and the bionic knee.d. Motion systems.e. GPS systems.f. Aerospace and avionics systems. 5. When was the first flex printed circuit made?From early applications during World War II to the present, growth and proliferation for flex circuits and flexible printed circuit boards continues exponentially. A flexible circuit in its purest form is a vast array of conductors bonded to a thin dielectric film. 6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of flexible circuit boards?The advantages of the flexible circuit board are mainly high assembly density, which can save the connection of redundant cables, in addition, it has good bendability, high flexibility, small size, simple structure, and convenient installation.Disadvantages of flexible circuit boards: 1. High initial cost 2. Difficult to change and repair 3. Size limited 4. Improper operation and easy damage, etc. 7. What do flexible circuit boards and rigid circuit boards mean?a.  Flexible circuit boards are used more in digital products. The difference between it and the rigid circuit board is that the substrate of the circuit board is different. As the name implies, the board can be bent and softer.b. "Multilayer board" and "double-sided board" mainly refer to the number of sides of wiring on the circuit board. Above 2 layers are multi-layer boards.From the perspective of the process flow, the multilayer board needs to be processed by the inner layer map, and the outer layer can be processed after being pressed. The processing flow of the outer layer is basically the same as the processing flow of the double-sided board. 8. What is the temperature resistance of fpc flexible circuit boards?FPC flexible circuit board can withstand high temperature of 280 degrees, about 1 hour. However, the recommended temperature for normal use is not less than -20 and not higher than 80. 9. With flexible circuit boards, why pcb hard printed circuit boards are still not eliminated?For PCBs that need to use plug-in components, only rigid boards can be used, which is what you call rigid boards; for many PCBs with stress requirements, only rigid boards can be used. The cost of flexible boards is currently much higher than rigid boards, more than doubled. And the straight-through rate of rigid boards is higher than that of flexible boards 10.Classification of flexible circuit boards?According to the combination of base material and copper foil, flexible circuit boards can be divided into two types: flexible boards with glue and flexible boards without glue. Among them, the price of the glueless flexible board is much higher than that of the glued flexible board, but its flexibility, the bonding force of the copper foil and the substrate, and the flatness of the pad are also better than the glued flexible board. You May Also LikeSwitching Power Supply Tutorial: 4V～16VWhat is A MCU’s internal Structure: Single Chip Micro-ComputerPCB Wring Tutorial: A/D converterMonitoring Technology in Communication Power Supply: Application GuideDIY CommunityDIY Flxible Printed CircuitsMake Flexible Circuit Boards Using A 3D Printer

Summary As we all know,originally developed to support analogue computers,the op amp has an elegantly simple core design. The industries are contining to spare no effect in creating‘ideal op-amp'.     Simply by wiring in different feedback configurations using passives,op amp can be massaged into roles that include buffers and integrators as well has high-gain amplifiers. It is little wonder the op amp has been as successful as it has been. What's more, people in the industry expect a few core parts to do almost any job and for the circuit to be ripe for integration cause the op amp is so readily tunerable.In practice,the choice of discrete op amps has never been wider. Steve Logan, executive business manager for Maxim Integrated’s core products groups, says: “If you don’t need terribly high bandwidth, high voltage for industrial systems or very low voltage for portable designs, those are times when op amps can be integrated.”   Subtly different edge cases push designer to discrete options Op amps often interface electronics to the outside world, so they need to take account of numerous subtly different edge cases, which pushes designers to discrete options. Each variant uses a specific choice of process and circuit topology to take on a job. Logan cites the wrist-worn heart rate monitor, which measures the light reflected back from a green LED. In these systems, input current noise has a large effect on signal quality, calling for op amps that can deliver much lower levels than generic options.   Signal-Conditioning of Systems Signal-conditioning of systems can turn out to be more complex than first appears. Logan says "“One application that’s not immediately obvious is driving a high-speed, high-resolution SAR A/D converter; it can be pretty demanding circuitry. The difference between a SAR and sigma-delta is in how it takes a big gulp of current. The op amp has to settle quickly, so you are talking settling time, slew rate and total harmonic distortion. You may need multiple stages to get the settling time, along with an input buffer, plus a gain stage and filter stage in front of that. You might think at first: how tough can it be? Then it turns into a two- or three-stage op-amp circuit.”   Dwight Byrd, marketing manager at Texas Instruments, says: “As demand for further sensors and signals increases, better conditioning and amplification of the sensor becomes paramount, thus making the proliferation of op amps possible.”     Art Eck, senior product marketing manager at Microchip Technology, adds: “We see a trend toward more designer op amps: op amps that are built for a particular application or set of applications.” At the same time,Kevin Tretter,the product marketing manager of Microchip notes that changes in application needs are creating new problems for op-amp components to address. “With the rapid expansion of wireless capabilities the industry has seen over the years, the presence of electromagnetic interference is becoming a larger issue. Sensitive analogue sensor circuits commonly sit next to wireless communication modules. More and more amplifier manufacturers are trying to combat the adverse effects by implementing on-chip filtering.”   Demand for Futher Sensors A lot of designs call for sensors to be added but for boards to be shrunk cause increasing noise is partly a by-product of the shrinking size of many designs as well ass the recent focus on making systems more aware of their surrounding environment.   Byrd notes: “Where the biggest driver in further technology trends comes in is package size. Previously, an SC-70 package was considered one of the smallest one-channel op amps available. Now, SOT553 is becoming commonplace.”   Logan says the trend continues all the way to wafer-level packages, measuring just more than 1mm on the longer side. Such tiny packages support the idea of an ‘analogue insurance policy’, where op amps and similar parts provide additional conditioning and protection such as buffering to integrated mixed-signal SoCs. “For a little extra size and cost, you can add these functions and make them more robust. The wafer-level package lets you do that.”   Renesas subsidiary Intersil Engineer Tom Kugelstadt said there is otential for circuit-level advances that could reduce the need for op-amp proliferation and so aid integration. “The biggest inevitable tradeoff is between low-power and high-bandwidth, or high-speed. In general, high-speed amplifiers require the fast charging and discharging of the gate capacitances of the internal transistors. This requires increases in bias and supply currents, which often leads to increased offset current and voltages. While high-speed op amps have improved significantly in these parameters, they still tower a magnitude above their low-speed, precision counterparts.“However, there are circuit topologies that aim for increased precision while trading only a minute portion of their high-speed performance. These designs, known as composite amplifiers, consist of a precision amp in open-loop and a high-speed amp in a closed-loop differentiator configuration.”   Complesity of Picking Right Op-amp The multiple novel circuit topologies that have appeared over the past few decades to deal with problems such as temperature drift and power consumption can have unexpected side effects that designers need to take into account. That adds to the complexity of picking the right op amp.   Logan points to the use of chopper-stabilised amplifiers. “These are great for low offsets, but push the noise out to a single frequency. One that pushes it out to 60kHz is great for DC, but if you have signals that reach 50kHz, you start to get into the noise skirt. These are nuanced things you might not see immediately from the datasheet.”   Frequency-related interactions often need careful examination, says Byrd, and datasheets should show them. “If the output impedance is relatively low and unchanging over a frequency range, it is normally indicative that the op amp will be more stable than one that does have a wide varying output impedance. The output impedance will be interacting directly with the op amp load, and normally a capacitor, it would create various filters as the frequency and therefore the output impedance changes.”   Kugelstadt says interactions with manufacturing choices at the PCB level can introduce unforeseen issues. “High-precision designs using auto-zeroing amplifiers can suffer in precision from asymmetric circuit design. Here, the solder joints around the amplifier form thermocouples that contribute more differential input voltage than the specified offset in the data sheet. Customers unfamiliar with this pitfall blame the device manufacturer for overstating its device performance. The remedy is good application support, such as including layout guidelines in the application section of the data sheet.”   Design Issues TI marketing manager Ying Zhou points out that the need to consider how the op amp is designed, particularly if the op amp is being co-opted for a secondary purpose. “If a dual- or quad-channel op amp is already used elsewhere on the board, sometimes the engineers would assign the left channels for comparator functions,” she says.Although many op amps have input clamping diodes to protect the input transistors but these can affect their behaviour as comparators. Zhou says ‘mux friendly’ versions of op amps that remove the clamps make them more suitable for use as comparators.   Logan notes: “Getting an evaluation kit and putting it on the board is a great thing to do. There is a lot of pin compatibility out there, so you can easily drop another one in to check its performance. But, you do have the issue of having a lot to choose from.”   The industry continues to strive to create the ‘ideal op amp’ and, although we continually get closer to that ideal, there will always be design trade-offs among speed, noise, power usage, size, et cetera. These trade-offs, coupled with continually growing application specific needs, will continue to drive a variety of amplifier types.”  

SummaryIncreasing demand for energy and power encourages companies operating in energy and power industry to adopt solutions that can help them enhance production output with minimum errors and reduced down-time on a global scale. The products are offered specifically for the energy sector to enhance operations in the energy data management area. Industry 4.0 solutions help power plant owners, operators, and Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) in the power industry make improved business decisions based on performance and operational readiness of their plant equipment.According to the MarketsandMarkets forecast, the Industry 4.0 market in energy and power was valued at $1.30m in 2016 and is expected to reach $3.22bn by 2022, at a CAGR of 16.33% between 2017 and 2022. IoT and Power IndustryIndustry 4.0 is being led by IoT and it plays an important role in condition monitoring and predictive and proscriptive maintenance of assets.Plant operators need to monitor and control the plant more efficiently, and for doing so, the adoption of advanced technologies such as HMI is increasing significantly in the energy and power industry. IoT provides flexibility to accommodate new energy sources, better management of assets and operations, greater reliability and enhanced security.  Big Data to Transform Power IndustryThe energy and power industry has recognised the benefits of big data as it plays a vital role in solving business problems in utility companies.In this vertical, the big data solutions are gaining traction in various processes such as seismic data analysis, smart grid analytics, and data analysis related to production, testing, logging, and many other operations. Each year, smart grids and smart meters generate hundreds of terabytes of data, which include unstructured and semi-structured data. Companies in the energy and power industry have analysed this huge amount of data to get real time access to the situation. Being largely customer-centric, the energy companies are also making a shift toward providing more personalised products and services to their customers. Big data plays an important role in providing trends and patterns by analysing the data, which in turn are useful for product and service upgradation and enhancement. Real Time Monitoring in Battery ManagementReal-time monitoring is a technique that allows you to determine the current state of queues and channels within a queue manager. The information returned is accurate at the moment the command was issued.It can provide frequent information on batteries which can help protect the batteries.Real time monitoring in battery management can help replace manual checks by information available at monitoring systems. Sensor modules collect the voltage and temperature data from the batteries and data is transferred in real time can help supervisors identify issues if any and which will lead to operational efficiency.   Predictive MaintenancePredictive maintenance (PdM) techniques are designed to help determine the condition of in-service equipment in order to predict when maintenance should be performed. This approach promises cost savings over routine or time-based preventive maintenance, because tasks are performed only when warranted.It helps in lowering operating and capital costs by facilitating proactive servicing and repair of assets while allowing more efficient use of maintenance personnel and replacement components.It enables companies to accurately diagnose and prevent failures in real time, which is vital in critical infrastructure applications.  Battery failures can prove to be highly expensive in terms of repair costs, in addition to the delay in transporting goods from the resulting downtime. Predictive battery analytics can also help predict battery failures which allows the supervisors to reduce reliability risk and improve uptime.The need for longer battery life, reduced energy consumption, and lower costs will lead companies to provide intelligent solutions. Cognitive Power Electronics SystemsPower electronics systems equipped with intelligence unit can monitor data from sensors and the data can be used to detect faults in the electronic system for real time optimisation of an application.A power converter with monitoring capabilities would be able to detect impedance changes of a battery,enter into a safe state and send information to external systems for further evaluation. Article from MarketsandMarkets Research Private Ltd.Edit by Kynix

LCD stands for “liquid crystal display” and technically, both LED and LCD TVs are liquid crystal displays. The basic technology is the same in that both television types have two layers of polarized glass through which the liquid crystals both block and pass light. So really, LED TVs are a subset of LCD TVs.LED, which stands for “light emitting diodes,” differs from general LCD TVs in that LCDs use fluorescent lights while LEDs use those light emitting diodes. Also, the placement of the lights on an LED TV can differ. The fluorescent lights in an LCD TV are always behind the screen. On an LED TV, the light emitting diodes can be placed either behind the screen or around its edges. The difference in lights and in lighting placement has generally meant that LED TVs can be thinner than LCDs, although this is starting to change. It has also meant that LED TVs run with greater energy efficiency and can provide a clearer, better picture than the general LCD TVs.Source: BY HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM CONTRIBUTORS