The Kynix Blog

IBM is telling the world about something quite ambitious: TrueNorth's neurons could revolutionize system architecture. Dharmendra S. Modha, IBM Fellow, has given us the overview of what TrueNorth is all about in his report in IBM Research.Six years ago, he said, IBM and university partners began their effort to build a brain-inspired computer.Phase 0 turned into Phase 1, Phase 2, and Phase 3— from neuroscience to super computing to a new architecture, to a new programming language to algorithms, applications, and now, new chip, which is TrueNorth.He offered some numbers, which are bit daunting for those not accustomed to the "neuromorphic" world of computer research.Modha said, "we have shrunk the neurosynaptic core by 15-fold in area and 100-fold in power, and have tiled 4,096 cores via an on- IC chip network to create TrueNorth—with one million neurons and 256 million synapses."Cade Metz, Wired senior staff writer, went beyond the numbers to describe on Monday what he saw. "Dharmendra Modha walks me to the front of the room so I can see it up close. About the size of a bathroom medicine cabinet, it rests on a table against the wall, and thanks to the translucent plastic on the outside, I can see the computer chips and the circuit boards and the multi-colored lights on the inside. It looks like a prop from a '70s sci-fi movie, but Modha describes it differently. 'You're looking at a small rodent,' he says. He means the brain of a small rodent—or, at least, the digital equivalent."(The machine at the front of the room is really 48 separate machines, each built around its own TrueNorth processors, Metz wrote.)Not surprisingly, several websites took to the rodent comparison to report that IBM had come up with a "rat brain"-like chip that might power the phones of tomorrow.Modha, meanwhile, spelled out the applications that might result. "The architecture can solve a wide class of problems from vision, audition, and multi-sensory fusion."Making smartphones, as Wired put it, "hyper-smart"? That would be one effect. Modha said, "On one hand, with portable devices: think smart phones, sensor networks, self-driving automobiles, robots, public safety, medical imaging, real-time video analysis, signal processing, olfactory detection, and digital pathology. On the other hand, with synaptic supercomputers: —think multimedia processing on the cloud."Reporter Mike Murphy in Quartz on Tuesday talked about the technology itself which is turning the corner: "While current chips are excellent at analyzing information in sequential order, the new 'neuromorphic' types of chips Modha's team are working on are better suited to finding patterns in information—like the right side of the brain."Traditional chips follow instructions, whereas IBM's new chip manages 'spikes'—rather like spikes in electrical activity in an organic brain," Murphy said.TrueNorth, with all its comparisons, is not a brain but it is a step toward a digital brain. "Let's be clear: we have not built the brain, or any brain," said Modha in the IBM Research report. "We have built a computer that is inspired by the brain. The inputs to and outputs of this computer are spikes. Functionally, it transforms a spatio-temporal stream of input spikes into a spatio-temporal stream of output spikes."Collaboration with Samsung was critical in gaining access to their advanced 28nm foundry process, he said. This allowed balancing the low active power of the architecture with matching low power of the underlying silicon technology.He added, "I am immensely grateful to our 200+ collaborators since 2008—spanning eight IBM labs and fabs, five universities, one start-up, and two Department of Energy laboratories. Finally, DARPA's mandate, metrics, and investment were absolutely vital." 

What Are Tantalum Capacitors?Tantalum capacitors are a type of electrolytic capacitor that uses tantalum metal for the anode. These capacitors have a very high capacitance-to-size ratio, making them ideal for small, space-constrained designs where stability, reliability, and performance are paramount. A tantalum capacitor consists of a tantalum metal anode, a dielectric oxide layer, and a cathode (usually made from a liquid or solid electrolyte). The tantalum anode forms the positive side, while the cathode forms the negative side. The oxide layer acts as the dielectric, enabling the capacitor to store electrical charge. The high-quality tantalum oxide layer formed on the anode during manufacturing allows tantalum capacitors to have a higher capacitance density than many other types of capacitors, making them useful for both high-performance and miniaturized electronic designs. Why Are Tantalum Capacitors Important?Tantalum capacitors play a critical role in ensuring the stable performance of modern electronic devices. Some key functions they perform include: Energy Storage: Tantalum capacitors store electrical energy and release it when needed, smoothing out power fluctuations to maintain consistent voltage levels. Signal Filtering and Stabilization: In signal-processing circuits, tantalum capacitors act as filters, stabilizing electrical signals and preventing noise from affecting the performance of sensitive components. Size and Efficiency: Thanks to their high capacitance-to-size ratio, tantalum capacitors are preferred in applications where space is limited, such as in smartphones, medical devices, and compact industrial equipment. Long-Term Reliability: Tantalum capacitors are known for their reliability, especially in applications that require consistent performance over time, such as in aerospace, automotive, and medical electronics. Without tantalum capacitors, many of the advanced technologies we rely on would not be as efficient or reliable. Their unique properties make them indispensable for applications requiring high capacitance, stability, and space efficiency. What Are the Different Types of Tantalum Capacitors?Tantalum capacitors come in several types, each designed for different applications and performance requirements. The two main categories are wet tantalum capacitors and solid tantalum capacitors. Additionally, within solid tantalum capacitors, there are various package styles that are optimized for different needs.1.Wet Tantalum CapacitorsWet tantalum capacitors use a liquid electrolyte as the cathode, which is in contact with the dielectric oxide layer formed on the anode. These capacitors are typically used in applications where high capacitance values are required, but they have some limitations compared to solid tantalum capacitors in terms of size and reliability. Advantages:Higher capacitance per volumeSuitable for high-energy applications Applications:Military and aerospace systemsPower supply filtering in high-performance systems 2.Solid Tantalum CapacitorsSolid tantalum capacitors use a solid electrolyte as the cathode, making them more stable and reliable than their wet counterparts. They are smaller, more robust, and have better performance at higher temperatures, which makes them ideal for consumer electronics, automotive systems, and industrial equipment. Advantages:Compact sizeHigher reliability and longer lifeBetter performance at high frequencies Applications:Consumer electronics (smartphones, tablets, laptops)Medical devicesAutomotive electronicsIndustrial equipmentWithin solid tantalum capacitors, there are different package types: Chip Tantalum Capacitors: These are the most common type used in compact electronics. They come in small surface-mount packages that are ideal for space-constrained applications.Axial Lead Tantalum Capacitors: These capacitors have leads for through-hole mounting. While they are larger than chip capacitors, they are often used in power supply circuits or other applications where higher capacitance is required. How to Choose the Right Tantalum CapacitorChoosing the right tantalum capacitor for your design requires a clear understanding of the circuit’s requirements. Here are some factors to consider when selecting a tantalum capacitor: 1.Capacitance and Voltage RatingThe first thing to consider is the required capacitance and voltage for your application. Tantalum capacitors are available in a wide range of capacitance values (from a few microfarads to several hundred microfarads) and voltage ratings (typically between 4V and 50V). When selecting the right capacitance, ensure that it meets the needs of your circuit’s power regulation, signal filtering, or energy storage requirements. The voltage rating should be at least 1.5 times higher than the maximum operating voltage of your circuit to ensure safety and prevent breakdown of the dielectric layer. 2.ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance)ESR is a critical parameter for tantalum capacitors, particularly in high-frequency applications. A low ESR helps maintain efficiency and reduces power loss, especially in circuits that handle high current or rapid voltage changes. Always check the ESR rating of the capacitor to ensure it’s suitable for your application. 3.Temperature StabilityTantalum capacitors offer excellent performance at a wide range of temperatures. However, it’s important to check the temperature coefficient and ensure that the chosen capacitor can operate reliably within the temperature range of your specific application. For automotive or industrial applications, a capacitor with a higher temperature tolerance may be necessary. 4.Reliability and Life ExpectancyTantalum capacitors are known for their long life and reliability, especially in demanding applications. When selecting a capacitor, consider the expected lifetime of the device and the environmental conditions it will operate in. Solid tantalum capacitors generally offer superior reliability compared to wet types, especially in high-vibration or high-stress environments. Key Specifications of Tantalum CapacitorsWhen choosing a tantalum capacitor, consider the following key specifications: Capacitance (Farads, F)Capacitance is the ability of the capacitor to store charge. Tantalum capacitors are available in a range of capacitance values, typically from a few microfarads (µF) to several hundred µF. Rated Voltage (V)This is the maximum voltage that the capacitor can safely withstand. It’s important to choose a tantalum capacitor with a voltage rating higher than the maximum voltage your circuit will experience. ESR (Ω)The equivalent series resistance (ESR) is an important parameter that determines how efficiently the capacitor will operate, especially at higher frequencies. Lower ESR is generally better, particularly for high-frequency applications. Temperature Coefficient (ppm/°C)The temperature coefficient indicates how the capacitance changes with temperature. A lower temperature coefficient means the capacitor will maintain a more stable capacitance across a wider temperature range. Leakage Current (µA)Leakage current is the small amount of current that can flow through the capacitor even when it's not in use. Minimizing leakage current is especially important for power-sensitive applications. Applications of Tantalum CapacitorsTantalum capacitors are found in a wide range of applications, from consumer electronics to industrial systems. Some of their most common applications include: 1.Consumer ElectronicsTantalum capacitors are widely used in mobile phones, laptops, and other consumer electronics due to their compact size, high capacitance, and reliability. They are typically used for power regulation, signal filtering, and energy storage. 2.Automotive ElectronicsAutomotive electronics rely on tantalum capacitors for stable power supply and reliable signal filtering, especially in systems like infotainment, power steering, and engine control units (ECUs). 3.Medical DevicesMedical devices such as pacemakers, hearing aids, and diagnostic equipment require highly reliable components. Tantalum capacitors are preferred in these applications due to their long lifespan and consistent performance. 4.Industrial EquipmentTantalum capacitors are used in industrial control systems, power supplies, and instrumentation. Their high reliability and stability in harsh environments make them ideal for critical industrial applications. ConclusionTantalum capacitors are crucial components in modern electronics. With their high capacitance-to-size ratio, reliability, and stable performance across a range of temperatures, they are indispensable in applications where space, power efficiency, and long-term stability are key. Whether you’re designing consumer electronics, automotive systems.

The US Department of Energy (DOE) Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) has detailed a living laboratory test of solid-state lighting (SSL) and controls on a 40,000-ft2 floor in a New York commercial office building. Berkeley Lab worked with the Building Energy Exchange (BEEx) on the LED lighting project that also included comprehensive light and occupancy sensors along with connected window shade controls. Berkeley Lab believes the work will speed market adoption of smart lighting and the BEEx will use the work to further its educational mission, serving lighting designers and specifiers that are working on commercial spaces.Lately, much of our coverage about smart lighting and the Internet of Things (IoT) has been focused on what lighting-based connectivity can offer in supporting new applications and services such as indoor positioning, security, asset tracking, and more. For example, Acuity Brands said earlier this year that it has deployed indoor positioning technology in 20 million ft2 of retail space. The IoT hype can make it easy to forget that networked control of lighting and shades confined to a space such as an office floor can deliver tremendous benefits in energy used.Still, roadblocks to more smart lighting installations remain. “Context matters when it comes to figuring out where the market barriers are with respect to contractors, facility managers, and office workers — isolated tests in a laboratory environment are often not enough,” said Eleanor Lee. “Reducing stakeholders’ uncertainty about performance and occupant response in a real-world setting can be critical to accelerating market adoption.” Lee is the Berkeley Lab scientist that led the New York project intended to document the benefits of smart lighting in a working office space — thus the characterization as a living lab. Berkeley Lab and BEEx collaborated on an office smart lighting trial in New York City that combined SSL with sensors and window shade controls. Indeed, the project team monitored energy usage and other characteristics of the office space for a full year before the retrofit to SSL and controls took place. BEEx acted as the local manager of the project.As the nearby photo illustrates, the retrofit replaced fluorescent T5 lighting with dimmable LED fixtures delivering direct and indirect lighting. The floor-to-ceiling windows received automated shades. And connected sensors spread throughout the mostly-open space can detect localized light levels and occupancy.The test further considered thermal elements of the space given that the ubiquitous windows and daylight can heat a space. The test included the use of linear slot diffusers along the top of the windows that can mitigate rising temperatures. And underfloor air distribution (UFAD) diffusers were used to improve airflow and allow for localized control. Thermal imaging was used to document acceptable temperatures throughout the retrofitted space.The smart lighting project sought to balance the benefits of natural light with visual and thermal comfort and provide workers with enjoyable views when possible. Shades had to be lowered at times to mitigate glare but could be opened at other times, both reducing the need for artificial lighting and fully revealing views for the office.The study focused on the 40-ft perimeter zone of the office floor. Compared to the measured baseline, the electricity required for lighting dropped 79% over the course of six months in which BEEx has monitored the installation. Peak electrical demand dropped 74%.The study did not measure energy dedicated to powering the HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) system in the space. But the researchers did estimate the impact on HVAC energy and also projected the measured data to suggest an entire building retrofit would have delivered savings of $730,000 per year. Based on installation cost of $3–$10 per square foot, an entire building project would pay back in 3–12 years.BEEx will take the results of the project to help the lighting community with tools and other resources. “Using everything we learned on this project,  we've developed a series of tools that will really help the engaged design professional or building owner make better decisions about lighting system upgrades, and avoid the common pitfalls on the road to a high-performance office space,” said Yetsuh Frank, BEEx managing director of strategy and programs.The Berkeley Lab has not been as involved in the SSL sector as has the DOE Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). PNNL has been behind many of the DOE Caliper and Gateway projects. We have covered many of those reports such as a recent Gateway report on four common indoor lighting applications.Still, the Berkeley Lab is adding to the DOE’s SSL initiative. About a year back we reported on a Berkeley project involving solar-powered LED lighting outdoors where the researchers said such lighting could create 2 million jobs in developing regions. Ref.591-2201-013F591-2001-013F 

Scientists often discover interesting things without completely understanding how they work. That has been the case with an experimental memory technology in which temperature and voltage work together to create the conditions for data storage. But precisely how was unknown. But when a Stanford team found a way to untangle the chip’s energy and heat requirements, their tentative findings revealed a pleasant surprise: The process may be more energy efficient than was previously supposed.That’s good news for next-generation mobile devices whose batteries would last longer if they were powering lower energy chips. The group that made this discovery, led by Stanford electrical engineer H.-S. Philip Wong, is presenting the paper when the IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) brings leading researchers to San Francisco Dec. 5.The new technology the team investigated is called resistive random-access memory, or RRAM for short. RRAM is based on a new type of semiconductor material that forms digital zeros and ones by resisting or permitting the flow of electrons.RRAM has the potential to do things that aren’t possible with silicon: for instance, being layered on top of computer transistors in new three-dimensional, high-rise chips that would be faster and more energy efficient than current electronics, which is ideal for smartphones and other mobile devices where energy efficiency is a vital feature.But while engineers can observe that RRAM does store data, they don’t know exactly how these new materials work. “We need much more precise information about the fundamental behavior of RRAM before we can hope to produce reliable devices,” Wong said. So to help engineers understand some of the unknowns, Wong’s team built a tool to measure the basic forces that make RRAM chips work.Graduate student Zizhen Jiang of the Stanford team explained the basics: RRAM materials are insulators, which normally do not allow electricity to flow, she said. But under certain circumstances, insulators can be induced to let electrons flow.Past research had shown how: Jolting RRAM materials with an electric field causes a pathway to form that permitted electron flows. This pathway is called a filament. To break the filament, researchers apply another jolt and the material becomes an insulator again. So each jolt switched the RRAM from zero to one or back, which is what makes the material useful for data storage.But electricity is not the only force at play in RRAM switching. Pumping electrons into any material raises its temperature. That’s the principle behind electric stoves. In the case of RRAM, it was the elevated temperature caused by introducing voltage that induced filaments to form or break. The question was what voltage-induced temperature was needed to cause the switching. No one knew.Before the new Stanford study researchers thought short bursts of voltage, sufficient to generate temperatures of about 1,160ºF – hot enough to melt aluminum – was the switching point. But those were estimates because there was no way to measure the heat generated by an electric jolt. “In order to begin to answer our questions, we had to decouple the effects of voltage and temperature on filament formation,” said Ziwen Wang, another graduate student on the team.Essentially, the Stanford researchers had to heat the RRAM material without using an electric field. So they put an RRAM chip on a micro thermal stage (MTS) device – a sophisticated hot plate capable of generating a wide range of temperatures inside the material.Of course the objective was not merely to heat the material, but also to measure how filaments formed. Here they took advantage of the fact that RRAM materials are insulators in their natural state. That makes them digital zeros. As soon as a filament formed electrons would flow. The digital zero would become a digital one, which the researchers could detect.Using this experimental model, the team put RRAM chips on the burner and cranked up the heat, starting at about 80ºF – roughly the temperature of a warm room – all the way up to 1,520ºF, hot enough to melt a silver coin. Heating the RRAM to various temperatures in between these extremes, the researchers measured precisely if and how RRAM switched from its native zero to a digital one.To their pleasant surprise, the researchers observed that filaments could form more efficiently at ambient temperatures between 80ºF and 260ºF, which is hotter than boiling water – contrary to prior expectation that hotter was better.If confirmed by subsequent research, this would be good news because in a working chip the switching temperature would be created by the voltage and duration of the electric jolt. Efficient switching at lower temperatures would require less electricity and make RRAM more energy efficient and extend battery life when used as the memory in mobile devices.Much work remains to be done to make RRAM memory practical but this research provides the test bed to vary conditions systematically instead of relying on hit-and-miss hunches. “Now we can use voltage and temperature as design inputs in a predictive manner and that is going to enable us to design a better memory device,” Wang said.Reference:MT16JTF51264AZ-1G6M1SDUS5EB-001GMD2202-D192  

Wearables and IoT gadgets, featuring smart functions in much smaller form factors, pose battery challenges and headaches by their small size. ARM has made moves that might change the story of battery life of many wearables and other small devices, with its recent acquisition of two companies. Reports on Friday about ARM focused on its having acquired two low-power wireless communications companies.The technology could extend the battery life of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, including wearables, by up to 60 per cent (compared to radio hardware that operates at 1.2 volts), said Daily Telegraph technology reporter Sophie Curtis. ("ARM claims that the Cordio radio technology system, operating below one volt, can extend battery life by 60 per cent, compared to radio hardware that operates at 1.2 volts," said the report. The two companies, Sunrise Micro Devices and Wicentric, said Curtis, will form the basis of its new Cordio portfolio. The result could brighten the picture for the development of low-power wireless communications for power-hungry devices.Aatif Sulleyman in TrustedReviews similarly observed how "Much of the power consumed by wearables is used up while communicating with other devices, such as smartphones. ARM wants to make this process less draining."ARM describes Cordio as a family of standards-based, low-power radio IP solutions. Each Cordio solution includes a pre-qualified, self-contained radio block, related link layer firmware, stack and profiles. It also carries guidelines for design, test, integration, qualification, and application development. ARM said semiconductor companies can benefit by having access to sub-volt radio solutions.Sunrise Micro Devices, said ARM, focuses on radio IP solutions and provides "a pre-qualified, self-contained radio block and related firmware to simplify radio deployment." Central to SMD radios is native sub-one volt operation. "Operating below one volt enables the radio to run much longer on batteries or harvested energy." Wicentric focuses on providing Bluetooth Smart software solutions. Curtis said Wicentric's Bluetooth Smart software solutions will run on the sub-one volt radios and help ease power consumption too.Paul Buckley in EE/Times said, "ARM is keen to make the Cordio solutions efficient enough to be powered using energy harvesting and sees SMD's sub-one volt Bluetooth radio IP as a vital ingredient in the design armory."The Cordio radio IP is being promoted as a fully integrated platform which includes transceiver, baseband, and link layer (LL) subsystem including firmware. The subsystem, said ARM, provides an "energy efficient, timing-independent interface to the host processor, enabling easy implementation of the stack and application layers. In addition, the subsystem intelligently controls the sleep and wake-up times of the host processor leading to lower system-wide power consumption."ARM said that "Core to all Cordio radio hardware is native sub-volt operation. Operating below 1 Volt enables the radio to 'sip' energy from a battery, thus greatly extending the device's life. In addition, it makes it easier to run without batteries by using energy harvesting technologies."In the bigger picture, "ARM is gradually building up a suite of IoT-focused solutions," said Buckley, "that address key stumbling blocks associated with developing commercially viable IoT products." 

Bird’s new Wideband Power Sensor series of USB Thruline power meters feature five models each suited to a particular application. All capable of measuring True Average Power, Peak Power and Duty Cycle, as well as VSWR/Return Loss, Average Burst Power and CCDF, the WPS series will work with any modulation scheme.The vast majority of RF power meters on the market today, in the milliwatt range, are all focussed on measuring power levels of typically -10dBm +/- 30dB. However, Bird Technologies are one of the few manufacturers to offer RF enquirers equipment capable of measuring “real world” transmitter power levels without the need to use directional couplers or high power attenuators.These new USB Power Meters for “real world” RF power measurements cover; 350MHz to 4GHz (150mW to 150W); 350MHz to 4GHz (25mW to 25W); 25MHz to 1GHz (500mW to 500W); 150MHz to 4GHz (100mW to 25W) and 25MHz to 1GHz (100mW to 100W).Insertion loss is less than 0.1dB (typically 0.05dB) with a VSWR of 1.1:1max (typically 1.05:1), plus a directivity specification of typically 30dB. These parameters contribute to an average power accuracy for all models of ±4% of reading, or 0.17dB, over the full power range at +15 to +350C.All Bird Wideband Power Sensors come with ‘Virtual Power Meter’ software to allow connection to a PC. In addition the WPS will interface with the Bird 5000-XT Digital Power meter, or the majority of the Bird SA / SH series of Site Analysers or SignaHawks.Also announced is the new 7020 Power Sensor, a low cost USB Power Meter similar in operation to the 501XB range. The 7020 contains the same ‘True Average Power’ measurement capabilities within the frequency range of 350MHz to 4GHz (0.15W to 150W), and has an identical accuracy of reading at ±4% +0.05W, or 0.17dB. The 7020 Power Sensor is an ideal low cost, but accurate, USB power meter for many applications.Reference:1005919-1PCUC30M72AV