The Kynix Blog

Imec, the Belgian nanoelectronics research center, will present at this week's 'CMOS Image Sensors for High Performance Applications' workshop in Toulouse (France) a prototype of a high-performance, time-delay-integration (TDI) image sensor. The image sensor is based on imec's proprietary embedded charge-coupled device (CCD) in CMOS technology. Imec developed and fabricated the sensor for the French Space Agency, CNES, which plans to utilize the technology for space-based earth observation.  The prototype image sensor combines a light-sensitive, CCD-based TDI pixel array with peripheral CMOS readout electronics. By integrating CCD with CMOS technology, imec combined the best of both worlds. The CCD pixel structure delivers low-noise TDI performance in the charge domain, while CMOS technology enables low-power, on-chip integration of fast and complex circuitry readouts.A TDI imager is a linear device that utilizes a clever synchronization of the linear motion of the scene with multiple samplings of the same image, thereby increasing the signal to noise ratio. CCDs fit extremely well with the TDI application since they operate in the charge domain, enabling the movement of charges without creating excess noise. By combining the TDI pixels array with CMOS readout circuitry on the same die, imec produced a camera-on-a-chip or system-on-a-chip (SOC) imager, which reduces the overall system complexity and cost. The CMOS technology enables on-chip readout electronics, such as clock drivers and analog-to-digital convertors (ADCs), operating at higher speeds and lower power consumption not possible with traditional CCD technology.The prototypes were fabricated using imec's 130nm process with an additional CCD process module. An excellent charge transfer efficiency of 99.9987 % has been measured ensuring almost lossless transport of charges in the TDI array, and guaranteeing high image quality. Imec's specialty imaging platform combines custom design (i.e., specialized pixels, high-performance readout circuits and chip architectures) with optimized silicon processing, such as dedicated implants and backside thinning, to achieve high-end specialized imagers.  

Vendors and consumers can agree: connectivity matters, and not just poetically speaking, or in the context of social networking. As for many, staying digitally connected is quite real a requirement and has become a lifeline of its own, in terms of ability to do work and in terms of access to vital information. San Diego-based Ethertronics is a business that provides connectivity via antenna and RF systems solutions. On Tuesday the company announced news of an active steering IC, with embedded processor for Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) applications. This is the EC482, with potential impact on cable and satellite markets. The company said its team can integrate EC482 products, including access points, set-top boxes, WiFi clients, WiFi extenders, wearables and other Internet of Things (IoT) devices.Translating what this means, Gigaom's senior writer Kevin Fitchard, who covers mobile broadband, carriers and wireless technologies, said that the new chip from Ethertronics "will bring its active steering algorithms to Wi-Fi antennas, increasing their range and boosting their throughput in less than optimal conditions." Ethertronics Chief Scientist Jeff Shamblin told Firchard that with the new version of the EtherChip, "active steering helps signals navigate multiple walls and ceilings which often separate a router from a Wi-Fi device."Quoted in RCR Wireless News, Shamblin, referring to the Active Steering technology, said, "Now that we can dynamically control the radiation pattern, not only can we improve the communication link you're trying to establish, we can start to null out interfering sources, so it brings interference mitigation."The EE Times explained that the company was leveraging its experience developing embedded antennas to create a line of dedicated beamforming chips. "Algorithms on EC482's processor monitor RF link performance on a wireless device to generate up to four radiation patterns and select the optimal antenna for the best performance," wrote Jessica Lipsky, associate editor. "The company's EtherChip EC482 aims to improve RF signal for Wi-Fi and 5 GHz backend applications."The company said the EtherChip EC482 had "superior single- and multi-antenna performance at frequencies even beyond the WiFi high-band." The operating frequency range is 100 MHz to 7000 MHz. The small footprint is just 3.0 x 3.0 x 0.75 mm3 in a QFN 24-pin package. Very low power consumption is required for operation, said the news release, which makes the EC482 suitable for even battery-operated systems.Ethertronics will show its new EtherChip EC482 and "Active Steering" solutions during Mobile World Congress next month in Barcelona.Laurent Disclos, Ethertronics CEO, shared his predictions in January for the new year in RCR Wireless News. "Regardless of the application – streaming a favorite show via a 5 GHz set-top box, keeping tabs on one's health via a wearable, or simply placing a voice call via a smartphone – the antenna is the only RF sensor in a wireless device, and those of us working to make that heartbeat stronger will have an exciting year in 2015, and beyond." 

Overview: The article reviews switching diodes, explaining their fundamental operation, key characteristics, and advantages in electronic circuits. It highlights their rapid switching capabilities and applications in high-frequency environments. The most essential function in a circuit is switching. Semiconductor devices that are specifically designed for rapid switching applications are switching diodes. In forward voltage, they allow current to flow; in reverse voltage, they block the current. This functionality makes them a basic component in every electronic circuit. What is a switching diode?Switching diodes, as shown in Fig. 1, are semiconductor devices that have the ability to switch on and off rapidly. They are increasingly employed in high-frequency applications because of their transition ability to switch from a conductive state to a non-conductive state. A diode suitable for switching small signals of up to 100 mA is a switching diode. They are designed to handle and withstand low voltages ranging from 80 V to 200 V. This property reduces the junction area of switching diodes. Hence, low capacitance and a short reverse recovery time can be realized. Switching diodes are modeled to control the flow of current in a circuit. Working PrincipleThe fundamental operation of a switching diode is based on its ability to conduct current in one direction (forward bias) and block it in the opposite direction (reverse bias), as shown in Fig. 2. When a voltage is applied in the forward direction, the diode turns on, allowing current to flow. Conversely, when a reverse voltage is applied, the diode turns OFF, preventing current flow.          Fig. 2: Working of switching diodes in (a) forward bias and (b) reverse bias. Source: ROHM Semiconductor The switching time required to change from on to off or off to on is shorter than that of normal diodes. The one-way conductive characteristic of switching diodes has a very low resistance of hundreds of ohms in positive bias. In contrast, there is a high resistance of hundreds of kilo-ohms in negative bias. This on/off behavior is akin to a switch in a circuit. Key Characteristics of a Switching DiodeThe essential characteristics of an ideal switching diode areHigh switching speedLow forward resistanceHigh reverse resistanceLow barrier capacitanceLong durabilityCompact sizeHigh reliability Reverse Recovery TimeOne of the critical parameters for switching diodes is the reverse recovery time. It is the time taken by the diode to switch from the ON state (low resistance state) to the OFF state (high resistance state), whereas switching from the OFF to the ON state is turn-on time. A shorter reverse recovery time is desirable, leading to lower energy losses and switching speeds. Typical switching diodes have a reverse recovery time ranging from a few nanoseconds to several hundred nanoseconds, depending on the type (e.g., high-speed or ultra-high-speed diodes) and the materials used in their construction. Barrier CapacitanceA barrier capacitance is connected in parallel with the diode. Under high-frequency and extreme conditions, current directly passes through the barrier capacitor, bypassing the diode. To avoid this situation, the barrier capacitance of the switching diode is kept extremely low. Low barrier capacitance will provide good unidirectional conductivity. Factors Affecting the Working of a Switching DiodeThe other factors that influence the working of switching diodes areCapacitance: Junction capacitance impacts the switching time.Resistance: The diode changes its state according to the resistance offered.Doping concentration: The density of charge carriers affects the switching speed.Depletion region: Narrow depletion width allows faster switching. Types of Switching DiodesSwitching diodes can be categorized based on their performance parameters:Ordinary Switching Diodes: General-purpose diodes used for basic switching applications.High-Speed Switching Diodes: Designed for faster switching times and suitable for high-frequency applications.Ultra-High-Speed Switching Diodes: The fastest switching capabilities are ideal for advanced electronic applications.Low-Power Switching Diodes: Consume less power but have higher reverse recovery times than high-speed diodes.High-Back Pressure Switching Diodes: They can withstand higher reverse voltages, making them suitable for specific applications. AdvantagesSwitching diodes offer several advantages over conventional diodes.Fast Switching: They can switch states in nanoseconds, making them suitable for high-frequency applications.Energy Efficiency: They consume less power than mechanical switches, which is particularly beneficial for battery-operated devices.Compact Size: Their small form factor allows for integration into compact electronic circuits.Reliability: Switching diodes are less prone to wear and oxidation than mechanical switches, leading to longer operational lifespans. ApplicationsSwitching diodes are widely used in various electronic circuits, including:Pulse and Switching Circuits: To control current flow in electronic devices and digital circuits.High-Frequency Circuits and Applications: Their low capacitance allows for efficient operation in RF applications where rapid switching is essential.Rectification: They are employed in switched-mode power supplies to convert AC to DC.Voltage Clamping: Used to protect circuits from voltage spikes.Signal Detection: In circuits that require fast response times for signal processing.Transistor protection: To ensure the safety and reliability of electronic circuits by protecting transistors from reverse voltage and unnecessary dischargeDigital logic: Diode logic circuits are utilized to implement basic logic functions. A Switching Diode to ConsiderThe 1N4148 is a widely used silicon switching signal diode known for its reliability and cost-effectiveness. It is commonly used in switching applications up to about 100 MHz, with a reverse recovery time of no more than 4 nanoseconds. The diode, which is shown in Fig. 3, was registered at JEDEC in 1968 for military and industrial applications and is available from various manufacturers. Fig. 3: Silicon Switching Diode. Source: Kynix Semiconductor Specifications for the most commonly used switching diodes (1N4148) areForward voltage ranges from 0.4 to 1.4 VThe reverse voltage is 100 VThe diode capacitance is 4 pFThe average forward current is 200 mAPower dissipation is 500 mWThe maximum reverse recovery time is 4 ns In summary, switching diodes are crucial and essential components in modern electronic circuits, providing reliable and efficient switching capabilities essential for various applications. Their design and performance characteristics, particularly the reverse recovery time, significantly affect their performance in high-speed and high-frequency environments. Summarizing the Key PointsSwitching diodes are essential semiconductor devices that enable rapid switching in electronic circuits, allowing current to flow in one direction while blocking it in the opposite direction.Key characteristics of switching diodes include high switching speed, low forward resistance, and low barrier capacitance, making them ideal for high-frequency applications.The reverse recovery time is a critical parameter for switching diodes, as shorter times lead to lower energy losses and improved switching speeds in electronic circuits.Switching diodes can be categorized into ordinary, high-speed, ultra-high-speed, and low-power types, each designed for specific application performance needs. ReferenceTan Yi Liang, Nor Farhani Zakaria and Shahrir Rizal Kasjoo, “ Silicon Self-Switching Diode (SSD) as a Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier in 5G Networks Frequencies,” MDPI Sensors, Volume 22, Issue no. 24, Dec 2022. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/22/24/9712 “Switching Diode: Working and its applications” https://www.elprocus.com/switching-diode/

Philips Lighting has introduced TrueForce LED Urban for replacing high pressure mercury (80W/125W) and sodium ovoid lamps (50W/70W) in streets, residential roads, parks and public squares.  The frosted version of the Urban produces 4,400 lm from a 33W input (133.33 lm/W @ 4,000K 70CRI), while the clear version puts out 4,800 lm. There are also frosted and clear 25W versions (2,900 and 3,200 lm). At the same time, it announced TrueForce LED Industrial and Retail for replacing traditional HID lamps – expected to be available in the second half of this year.The TrueForce LED range is rated at 50,000 hours and comes with a five-year warranty.The third stage of the European Commission Regulation (EC) 245/2009 came into effect on April 13, 2017 – introducing stricter efficiency requirements for HID lamps and requires light sources not meeting the minimum energy efficiency requirements to be phased out, said Philips.Ref:KY59-VC1512135W3DKY59-LE-MG-24W

A new type of radio frequency identification (RFID) chip has been developed that is virtually impossible to hack.If such chips were widely adopted, it could mean that an identity thief couldn't steal your credit card number or key card information by sitting next to you at a café, and high-tech burglars couldn't swipe expensive goods from a warehouse and replace them with dummy tags.Texas Instruments has built several prototypes of the new chip, to the researchers' specifications, and in experiments the chips have behaved as expected. The researchers presented their research this week at the International Solid-State Circuits Conference, in San Francisco.According to Chiraag Juvekar, a graduate student in electrical engineering at MIT and first author on the new paper, the chip is designed to prevent so-called side-channel attacks. Side-channel attacks analyze patterns of memory access or fluctuations in power usage when a device is performing a cryptographic operation, in order to extract its cryptographic key."The idea in a side-channel attack is that a given execution of the cryptographic algorithm only leaks a slight amount of information," Juvekar says. "So you need to execute the cryptographic algorithm with the same secret many, many times to get enough leakage to extract a complete secret."One way to thwart side-channel attacks is to regularly change secret keys. In that case, the RFID chip would run a random-number generator that would spit out a new secret key after each transaction. A central server would run the same generator, and every time an RFID scanner queried the tag, it would relay the results to the server, to see if the current key was valid.BlackoutSuch a system would still, however, be vulnerable to a "power glitch" attack, in which the RFID chip's power would be repeatedly cut right before it changed its secret key. An attacker could then run the same side-channel attack thousands of times, with the same key. Power-glitch attacks have been used to circumvent limits on the number of incorrect password entries in password-protected devices, but RFID tags are particularly vulnerable to them, since they're charged by tag readers and have no onboard power supplies.Two design innovations allow the MIT researchers' chip to thwart power-glitch attacks: One is an on-chip power supply whose connection to the chip circuitry would be virtually impossible to cut, and the other is a set of "nonvolatile" memory cells that can store whatever data the chip is working on when it begins to lose power.For both of these features, the researchers—Juvekar; Anantha Chandrakasan, who is Juvekar's advisor and the Vannevar Bush Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science; Hyung-Min Lee, who was a postdoc in Chandrakasan's group when the work was done and is now at IBM; and TI's Joyce Kwong, who did her master's degree and PhD with Chandrakasan—use a special type of material known as a ferroelectric crystals.As a crystal, a ferroelectric material consists of molecules arranged into a regular three-dimensional lattice. In every cell of the lattice, positive and negative charges naturally separate, producing electrical polarization. The application of an electric field, however, can align the cells' polarization in either of two directions, which can represent the two possible values of a bit of information.When the electric field is removed, the cells maintain their polarization. Texas Instruments and other chip manufacturers have been using ferroelectric materials to produce nonvolatile memory, or computer memory that retains data when it's powered off.Complementary capacitorsA ferroelectric crystal can also be thought of as a capacitor, an electrical component that separates charges and is characterized by the voltage between its negative and positive poles. Texas Instruments' manufacturing process can produce ferroelectric cells with either of two voltages: 1.5 volts or 3.3 volts.The researchers' new chip uses a bank of 3.3-volt capacitors as an on-chip energy source. But it also features 571 1.5-volt cells that are discretely integrated into the chip's circuitry. When the chip's power source—the external scanner—is removed, the chip taps the 3.3-volt capacitors and completes as many operations as it can, then stores the data it's working on in the 1.5-volt cells.When power returns, before doing anything else the chip recharges the 3.3-volt capacitors, so that if it's interrupted again, it will have enough power to store data. Then it resumes its previous computation. If that computation was an update of the secret key, it will complete the update before responding to a query from the scanner. Power-glitch attacks won't work.Because the chip has to charge capacitors and complete computations every time it powers on, it's somewhat slower than conventional RFID chips. But in tests, the researchers found that they could get readouts from their chips at a rate of 30 per second, which should be more than fast enough for most RFID applications."In the age of ubiquitous connectivity, security is one of the paramount challenges we face," says Ahmad Bahai, chief technology officer at Texas Instruments. "Because of this, Texas Instruments sponsored the authentication tag research at MIT that is being presented at ISSCC. We believe this research is an important step toward the goal of a robust, low-cost, low-power authentication protocol for the industrial Internet."   

Finding a reliable lr44 battery replacement is rarely as simple as matching a part number. Because button cell batteries are manufactured globally under dozens of regional and brand-specific naming conventions, sourcing teams and repair technicians often face a confusing landscape of equivalent codes. Furthermore, while many batteries share the exact physical dimensions of the LR44, their internal chemistry—specifically alkaline versus silver oxide—dictates their electrical behavior, shelf life, and suitability for precision electronics.This guide synthesizes the mechanical specifications, discharge profiles, and replacement workflows required to select the correct button cell for low-drain devices, precision measurement tools, and vintage electronics.Mechanical and Electrical SpecificationsFor product engineers and hardware technicians, understanding the exact operational parameters of the LR44 is critical for diagnosing device failures or specifying components for a Bill of Materials (BOM).LR44 Mechanical DimensionsPhysical Dimensions: The standard LR44 measures 11.6mm in diameter and 5.4mm in height. The manufacturing tolerance for thickness is strictly 1.55mm (±0.05mm). Low-quality generic cells can sometimes measure up to 1.62mm thick, which risks permanently bending or damaging the battery compartment contacts in precision devices.Voltage Parameters: The LR44 is a 1.5V nominal alkaline cell. A healthy new cell will show an Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) of at least 1.50V. Under a 200-ohm load for 5 seconds, the Closed Circuit Voltage (CCV) should remain at or above 1.10V. The standard cut-off voltage is typically between 0.9V and 1.0V.Capacity and Current Limits: Typical capacity ranges from 110mAh to 150mAh, depending on the manufacturer and the discharge load (standard test load is 6.8kΩ). The LR44 is designed for micro-power applications requiring less than 5mA of continuous discharge. It is not suitable for high-pulse loads exceeding 20mA.Internal Resistance: New LR44 batteries typically exhibit an internal resistance between 3 and 9 ohms.Decoding the Nomenclature: Equivalents and AliasesThe most common mistake beginners make when sourcing a replacement is searching exclusively for the exact proprietary text stamped on a dead battery. Historically, manufacturers used proprietary branding to lock consumers into their ecosystem. For example, visual inspections of vintage Timex electric watches reveal they require a "TIMEX TYPE AL" battery, which is simply a standard LR44.Today, it is common to see multi-label blister packs where a single battery cell is packaged with multiple equivalent designations printed simultaneously, such as AG13, 357A, CX44, and LR44W.To navigate this, it is helpful to review the Top Batteries That Can Replace LR44. Common alkaline equivalents include:AG13 / G13: A highly common designation. If your device calls for this, you can safely use Top-Rated AG13 Battery Equivalent Substitutes, which are identical to the LR44.A76 / 76A / KA76: Widely used in North America.LR1154 / L1154: The standard naming convention in Europe and Asia, where "11" refers to the 11.6mm diameter and "54" refers to the 5.4mm height.V13GA: Varta’s brand-specific designation.Alkaline (LR44) vs. Silver Oxide (SR44): The Chemistry ShowdownWhile the LR44 (alkaline) and SR44 (silver oxide) share identical physical dimensions, their chemical makeup results in vastly different electrical behaviors. Understanding SR44 vs LR44 Which Battery Should You Use comes down to analyzing their discharge curves and environmental tolerances.Sloping vs. Flat Discharge CurvesLR44 vs SR44 Discharge CurvesAlkaline LR44 batteries feature a sloping discharge curve. As the battery drains, its voltage drops steadily from 1.5V down to its 0.9V cut-off. This makes them highly cost-effective for basic electronics like toys, laser pointers, and basic calculators where a gradual dimming of power is acceptable.Silver oxide SR44 batteries (often labeled as 357, 303, or SR44W) feature a flat discharge curve. They maintain a steady 1.55V output for the vast majority of their lifespan, dropping off sharply only at the very end. This predictable voltage curve is mandatory for precision electronics like digital calipers, medical instruments, and quartz watches, where a voltage drop would cause LCD flickering or sensor reset errors.Temperature and Shelf LifeSilver oxide performs significantly better in extreme temperatures. While an LR44 can technically function at -10°C (maintaining a 1.10V CCV), its overall capacity drops by roughly 50% in freezing conditions. In contrast, an SR44 retains up to 85% of its capacity at -10°C. Furthermore, SR44 batteries boast a shelf life of 4 to 6 years with a lower risk of chemical leakage, whereas LR44 alkaline cells typically expire after 2 to 3 years.The "One-Way" Replacement RuleBecause of the differences in chemistry, technicians should follow the "one-way replacement rule": An SR44 can almost always upgrade an LR44, but an LR44 should rarely replace an SR44.If a device was designed for an alkaline LR44, installing a silver oxide SR44 will simply provide longer life and better voltage stability. In benchmark tests using a TI-84 calculator under continuous backlight, a standard LR44 lasted 380 hours, while an SR44 lasted 820 hours.However, if a device was engineered specifically for an SR44, downgrading to an LR44 will lead to erratic behavior, premature failure, and potential device damage over time due to voltage instability.Replacement Workflow and Troubleshooting📺 AG13/A76/LR44 Watch battery EquivalentWhen replacing button cells in sensitive equipment, follow this standard technician workflow to prevent unnecessary resistance and hardware damage:Safe Battery Replacement WorkflowPower Down: Ensure the device is completely turned off to prevent short circuits during removal.Safe Extraction: Use plastic or ceramic tweezers. Metal tweezers can bridge the positive and negative terminals, instantly shorting and draining the new battery.Contact Cleaning: Inspect the battery compartment for white or green crystalline corrosion (a common issue with expired alkaline cells). Clean the contacts with isopropyl alcohol and a cotton swab. Even microscopic layers of finger oils or corrosion can increase internal resistance, mimicking a dead battery.Verify Polarity: Button cells usually have a flat top (positive, marked with a "+") and a slightly raised bottom (negative). Ensure correct orientation as per the device schematic.Decision Matrix: LR44 vs. SR44Use the following framework to determine which chemistry is appropriate for your specific application.Application / Device TypeRecommended ChemistryReason for SelectionToys, Laser Pointers, NoveltiesLR44 (Alkaline)Highly cost-effective; sloping voltage drop does not impact basic functionality.Digital Calipers & MicrometersSR44 (Silver Oxide)Requires flat discharge curve; alkaline voltage drops cause LCD flicker and loss of zero-calibration.Vintage Electric WatchesSR44 (Silver Oxide)High energy draw and need for precise timing require stable 1.55V output.Basic ThermometersLR44 (Alkaline)Low continuous draw makes alkaline sufficient, though silver oxide offers longer shelf life.Outdoor / Cold Weather GearSR44 (Silver Oxide)Retains 85% capacity at -10°C, whereas alkaline capacity drops by 50%.What to Ignore (Industry Noise)When researching battery specifications, you will likely encounter conflicting or inaccurate information. Filter out the following claims:The "3V L1154F" Myth: Some online listings erroneously categorize the L1154F as a 3V lithium battery. The L1154 is strictly a 1.5V alkaline equivalent to the LR44. If a device requires 3V, it likely needs a CR-series lithium coin cell (e.g., CR2032), which has entirely different dimensions and chemistry.The "Silver Iodide" Typo: Certain low-tier component blogs mislabel the 357A or SR44 as "silver iodide." The correct chemical composition is silver oxide.Proprietary Lock-in: Ignore device manuals that insist you must buy a specific brand's proprietary battery code (like V13GA or Type AL) to maintain warranty or performance. As long as the physical dimensions (11.6 x 5.4mm) and chemistry match, the brand name is irrelevant.Frequently Asked QuestionsAre LR44 batteries rechargeable?No. LR44 and their equivalents (AG13, A76, SR44) are primary cells, meaning they are strictly non-rechargeable. Attempting to recharge them in a battery charger can cause them to rupture, leak caustic potassium hydroxide, or explode.Why did my new LR44 battery die immediately in my digital calipers?Digital calipers require a stable voltage to maintain their measurement sensors. Because LR44 batteries have a sloping discharge curve, their voltage drops quickly below the threshold required by the caliper's processor, even if the battery still has capacity. You must use a silver oxide SR44/357 battery for calipers.What is the difference between 357 and 303 batteries?Both are silver oxide equivalents to the LR44. Historically, the 357 was designed for high-drain devices (like watches with alarms or backlights), while the 303 was designed for low-drain devices (basic analog watches). Today, most manufacturers combine them into a single "357/303" dual-label battery.How should I store spare LR44 batteries?Store them in a dry, climate-controlled environment (ideally between 68°F and 77°F) with low humidity. Keep them in their original blister packaging. If stored loose in a drawer, the cells can touch each other or other metal objects, causing them to short-circuit and drain prematurely.How do I safely dispose of LR44 batteries?While modern LR44 batteries no longer contain mercury, they still contain zinc, manganese dioxide, and potassium hydroxide. They should not be thrown in household trash. Tape the terminals with clear tape to prevent short-circuiting and take them to a local e-waste or community battery recycling drop-off point.