The Kynix Blog

DescriptionIt's not weird to discover that applications are becoming more complex,with connectivity just one of the drivers. And,as it become more complex.the number of sensors grows,as does the need for more capable user interfaces. At the same time,algoriths need more processing power,wireless stacks mandate larger memories and power budgets are shrinking.In order to coping with the growing list of demands, a great number of leading MCU manufacturers have recently launched Micro Controller Unit built around the ARM Cortex-M4 core. BodyThe M3 is general purpse and the M0+is low cost but the M4 is a more capable core in general if look at the Cortex range. Oivind Loe,a senior strategic marketing manager with Sillicon Laboratories said. Microchip's product marketing manager--Anand Rangara commented:“Something that sat around without the need to communicate now needs connectivity. When that happens, you need more flash and RAM, as well as graphics capability and perhaps the ability to support a touch interface. All this has to be offered at good power/performance and an attractive price.”  'Industrial Strength' MCUsSilicon Labs has expanded its EFM32 Gecko portfolio with what it calls ‘industrial strength’ MCUs. It says the EFM32GG11 Giant Gecko MCU family offers the ‘most advanced’ feature set available in the low-power MCU market.Loe noted that MCU development isn’t just about power. “It’s also about executing tasks efficiently. A simple program with a few clocks will run efficiently on an M0+ core. But if the workload is larger, the M4 core has some special instructions that can allow it to use less energy than the M0+ and more efficiently than some larger cores – and that's crucial for a range of application.” GG11 Geckos offer up to 2Mbyte of flash and 512kbyte of RAM to accommodate more code and comms stacks, such as a 10/100 Ethernet MAC and a dual CAN interface. Looking to meet power budgets, the parts boast an active power consumption of 77μA/MHz, while drawing 1.6μA in deep sleep mode. FPU to Increase System EffiencyMicrochip’s SAM D5x/E5x MCUs also take advantage of the Cortex-M4’s floating point unit (FPU) to increase system efficiency. Running at up to 120MHz, the D5x and E5x MCUs come with up to 1Mbyte of dual-panel flash and up to 256kbyte of SRAM. Rangarajan noted: “We’ve listened to our customers, so we’ve included more connectivity in these MCUs. But it's not just about adding memory , it’s also about more performance and the ability to provide more flexible peripherals, interfaces and connectivity options.” Meanwhile,he  pointed out that the original SAM D MCUs – developed by Atmel prior to its acquisition by Microchip – were based on the Cortex-M0+. “But we’ve always wanted to take the product line to the next level of performance. This allows Microchip to address a broader range of consumer and industrial automation applications.” Limited the Clock RateBucking the trend to a certain extent, both Silicon Labs and Microchip have limited the clock rate in their latest MCUs. Giant Geckos, for example, have a maximum clock of 72MHz. “These products are focused on energy efficiency,” Loe claimed. “If you build an MCU to run at 200MHz, for example, then each clock cycle will consume more energy than in an MCU running at 72MHz. A lot of MCUs will be used in battery powered apps, so we need to be energy efficient and to enable the CPU to sleep a lot.” Rangarajan agreed that clock rate is not always the primary factor when it comes to developing MCU portfolios. “We hear our customers saying don’t give me faster clock rates, make sure the MCUs meet my requirements. An app that runs from a battery requires a power efficient MCU. If you want a fast MCU, then you have to make trade offs.” In Loe’s views, MCU selection is all about the ability to perform certain tasks at a particular power efficiency. “That is always going to involve trade offs, but an M4 based MCU will generally be good for embedded applications with challenging energy consumption requirements.” Adopt the Concept of Smart PeripheralsBoth companies have adopted the concept of smart peripherals in their recent products. Loe explained: “Twenty years ago, most MCUs saw the CPU doing everything. That took a lot of CPU cycles, which meant you couldn’t do as much as you might have liked.“Today, most apps will take advantage of DMA, which offloads the CPU. In turn, this allows the CPU to do more.” Rangarajan said Microchip provides what he called ‘sleepwalking’ peripherals. “If there’s a requirement for them to do small numbers of transactions, this can be done without waking the CPU.” On the other hand,Sillicon Loe Noted that It’s all about when you have to wake up the M4 core. We’re trying to allow it to sleep for as much as possible. More than half of the peripherals in a Giant Gecko can run autonomously in deep sleep mode. Both Companies are Keen to Highlight Their Provision Silicon Labs has launched a starter kit to support Giant Gecko based application development(following picture) With this approach, a Giant Gecko’s A/D converter can operate while the CPU is in deep sleep mode. “It can sample and use DMA to pull the data into RAM,” Loe continued.Loe highlighted a couple of aspects. “We have included a cyrotimer that runs in shut off; the lowest energy mode. It’s a simple timer that’s useful when you need the CPU to be asleep for minutes. there’s the Peripheral Reflex System, which allows peripherals to talk. For example, the real time clock could tell the A/D converter to take a sample. It gives a level of determinism which you don’t get from a CPU.  Microchip's Product brings better power efficiency How does an MCU developer differentiate their products from similar devices with an M4 core? Rangarajan pointed to the integration of a buck regulator. “This brings better power efficiency,” he claimed, “which means lower active power consumption; as little as 65µA/MHz. The parts also support flexible pin options.”“We’re offering the best integrated security features,” Rangarajan contended. “SAM Dx/Ex MCUs have crypto hardware acceleration – symmetrical and asymmetrical – and public key encryption, amongst other features. It’s something Microchip has taken to heart and has made sure it’s all in the MCU.“We’re offering the best integrated security features,” Rangarajan contended. “SAM Dx/Ex MCUs have crypto hardware acceleration – symmetrical and asymmetrical – and public key encryption, amongst other features. It’s something Microchip has taken to heart and has made sure it’s all in the MCU.  EndLoe pointed to the security management unit (SMU) as an ‘upgrade’ to the memory protection unit (MPU) associated with the M4’s core. “While the MPU allows you to segment memory into eight regions, the SMU takes that further. The MPU is restricted to eight regions, so there is limited granularity. The SMU allows you to selectively say which pieces of code can access each peripheral.” “All of this is important,” Rangarajan concluded, “as security will become standard in the next few years.” 

SummaryThe invention of electril trucks has bring a lot of benefit for human being. An electric truck is a truck powered by electricity. For information on trucks using a combination of internal combustion engines and electric propulsion, see Hybrid electric truck. Now they are having a moment in the spotlight,however,they still have a long haul cause the costs and other limitations.  Tesla Inc. plans to unveil a semi tractor-trailer this week, its first foray into trucking after more than a decade of making cars and SUVs. German automaker Daimler AG showed off its own electric semi last month and says it could be on sale in a few years. Truck rental company Ryder just added 125 all-electric vans made by California startup Chanje to its fleet. "It's kind of like the checkered flag is being waved," said Glen Kedzie, energy and environmental counsel with the American Trucking Associations. "We've seen different fuels come and go, and electric has gotten to the front of the line." According to the data of Navigant Research, global sales of pure electric trucks are expected to grow exponentially from 4,100 in 2016 to 70,600 in 2026 as battery costs fall and more options enter the market.elivery companies, mail services and utilities will be among the biggest purchasers, and most of the growth will come from Europe, China and the U.S. Most electric trucks on the road will be medium-duty vehicles like delivery vans or garbage trucks. They're quiet and emission-free, and they can be plugged in and charged at the end of a shift. They're ideal for predictable urban routes of 100 miles or less; a longer range than that requires more batteries, which are heavy and expensive. Battery Costs IssueHowever,it's cost that cause a big issue. A medium-duty electric truck costs about $70,000 more than equivalent diesel trucks, according to the consulting firm Deloitte. Buyers considering electrics have to weigh what they can save on fuel and maintenance costs, since electrics have fewer parts.Heavy-duty trucks like electric semis have even further to go before they can be competitive with diesels. Some of those trucks are used for shorter routes, but to achieve a longer range of 300 miles, they require more batteries.  Expensive EletrificationDeloitte estimates electrification adds around $150,000 to the cost of a heavy-duty vehicle, or more than double the cost of some diesel tractor-trailers. Electric semi trucks will have the added problem of long charging times and little highway charging infrastructure."I see it being relevant but not ready for prime time," Chanje CEO Bryan Hansel said of long-haul electric trucks. He thinks it will be five years or more before the battery technology and infrastructure can support cross-country electric trucking. "It's a big prize, but the physics haven't caught up yet," he said. Different ThinkingOther analysts,however,believe that this situation will change. Battery costs are expected to fall significantly over the next decade as technology improves. Deloitte expects battery costs for trucks to fall from $260 per kilowatt-hour in 2016 to $122 in 2026. That would cut the cost of a 300 kWh battery pack—like the one in Daimler's prototype semi —from $78,000 to $36,600. At the same time,regulations will drive interest in electric trucks. In the U.S., trucks must meet stricter emissions standards through 2027 under rules that went into effect last year. China is also tightening emissions standards. And several major cities, including Paris and Mexico City, have called for a ban on diesels by 2025 to improve air quality. Incentives are also enticing companies to add electric trucks to their fleets. Companies that buy or lease vans from Chanje are eligible for an $80,000 voucher per vehicle from the state of California, for example. France pays out 10,000 euros ($11,669) to buyers who replace diesel vehicles with electric ones.  Companies' GoalsCompanies are also experimenting with electrics—and other alternatives, like natural gas—because they want to meet their own sustainability goals and figure out the optimal mix for their fleets. United Parcel Service, for example, has 300 electric trucks in its global fleet of 100,000 vehicles, mostly in the U.S. and Europe, said Scott Phillippi, UPS's Senior Director of Maintenance and Engineering for international operations. Many of UPS's delivery routes require trucks to travel less than 100 miles per day, a range easily met by an electric truck, Phillippi said. He said electric trucks also help the company take advantage of incentives. UPS has set a goal of having 25 percent of its fleet be made up of alternative fuel vehicles by 2020, in part to encourage manufacturers to keep building and improving such trucks. "The proof of concept time is over," he said. "Everybody is starting to agree it's not a matter of if, it's a matter of when." 

Today, at the imec technology forum (ITF2017), imec demonstrated the world's first self-learning neuromorphic chip. The brain-inspired chip, based on OxRAM technology, has the capability of self-learning and has been demonstrated to have the ability to compose music.The human brain is a dream for computer scientists: it has a huge computing power while consuming only a few tens of Watts. Imec researchers are combining state-of-the-art hardware and software to design chips that feature these desirable characteristics of a self-learning system. Imec's ultimate goal is to design the process technology and building blocks to make artificial intelligence to be energy efficient so that that it can be integrated into sensors. Such intelligent sensors will drive the internet of things forward. This would not only allow machine learning to be present in all sensors but also allow on-field learning capability to further improve the learning.By co-optimizing the hardware and the software, the chip features machine learning and intelligence characteristics on a small area, while consuming only very little power. The chip is self-learning, meaning that is makes associations between what it has experienced and what it experiences. The more it experiences, the stronger the connections will be. The chip presented today has learned to compose new music and the rules for the composition are learnt on the fly.It is imec's ultimate goal to further advance both hardware and software to achieve very low-power, high-performance, low-cost and highly miniaturized neuromorphic chips that can be applied in many domains ranging for personal health, energy, traffic management etc. For example, neuromorphic chips integrated into sensors for health monitoring would enable to identify a particular heartrate change that could lead to heart abnormalities, and would learn to recognize slightly different ECG patterns that vary between individuals. Such neuromorphic chips would thus enable more customized and patient-centric monitoring."Because we have hardware, system design and software expertise under one roof, imec is ideally positioned to drive neuromorphic computing forward," says Praveen Raghavan, distinguished member of the technical Staff at imec. "Our chip has evolved from co-optimizing logic, memory, algorithms and system in a holistic way. This way, we succeeded in developing the building blocks for such a self-learning system." Ref:KY32-MAX1490AEPG+KY32-LN3251MPW

In an advance that helps pave the way for next-generation electronics and computing technologies—and possibly paper-thin gadgets —scientists with the U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) developed a way to chemically assemble transistors and circuits that are only a few atoms thick. What's more, their method yields functional structures at a scale large enough to begin thinking about real-world applications and commercial scalability. The scientists controlled the synthesis of a transistor in which narrow channels were etched onto conducting graphene, and a semiconducting material called a transition-metal dichalcogenide, or TMDC, was seeded in the blank channels. Both of these materials are single-layered crystals and atomically thin, so the two-part assembly yielded electronic structures that are essentially two-dimensional. In addition, the synthesis is able to cover an area a few centimeters long and a few millimeters wide. "This is a big step toward a scalable and repeatable way to build atomically thin electronics or pack more computing power in a smaller area," says Xiang Zhang, a senior scientist in Berkeley Lab's Materials Sciences Division who led the study. Zhang also holds the Ernest S. Kuh Endowed Chair at the University of California (UC) Berkeley and is a member of the Kavli Energy NanoSciences Institute at Berkeley. Other scientists who contributed to the research include Mervin Zhao, Yu Ye, Yang Xia, Hanyu Zhu, Siqi Wang, and Yuan Wang from UC Berkeley as well as Yimo Han and David Muller from Cornell University. Their work is part of a new wave of research aimed at keeping pace with Moore's Law, which holds that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years. In order to keep this pace, scientists predict that integrated electronics will soon require transistors that measure less than ten nanometers in length. Transistors are electronic switches, so they need to be able to turn on and off, which is a characteristic of semiconductors. However, at the nanometer scale, silicon transistors likely won't be a good option. That's because silicon is a bulk material, and as electronics made from silicon become smaller and smaller, their performance as switches dramatically decreases, which is a major roadblock for future electronics. Researchers have looked to two-dimensional crystals that are only one molecule thick as alternative materials to keep up with Moore's Law. These crystals aren't subject to the constraints of silicon. In this vein, the Berkeley Lab scientists developed a way to seed a single-layered semiconductor, in this case the TMDC molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), into channels lithographically etched within a sheet of conducting graphene. The two atomic sheets meet to form nanometer-scale junctions that enable graphene to efficiently inject current into the MoS2. These junctions make atomically thin transistors. "This approach allows for the chemical assembly of electronic circuits, using two-dimensional materials, which show improved performance compared to using traditional metals to inject current into TMDCs," says Mervin Zhao, a lead author and Ph.D. student in Zhang's group at Berkeley Lab and UC Berkeley. Optical and electron microscopy images, and spectroscopic mapping, confirmed various aspects related to the successful formation and functionality of the two-dimensional transistors. In addition, the scientists demonstrated the applicability of the structure by assembling it into the logic circuitry of an inverter. This further underscores the technology's ability to lay the foundation for a chemically assembled atomic computer, the scientists say. "Both of these two-dimensional crystals have been synthesized in the wafer scale in a way that is compatible with current semiconductor manufacturing. By integrating our technique with other growth systems, it's possible that future computing can be done completely with atomically thin crystals," says Zhao. Reference: 2N3811 EMX2T2R DMA204020R  

Defining Logic Output Optocouplerslight-emitting diode (LED)The optical couplers at the logic output are like small security devices that transmit electronic messages. They ensure that signals travel safely from one side of a power line to the other side, without risk of damage.Imagine a narrow tunnel with no lightning. This distinction exists between a signal transmitter, which is a light-emitting diode (LED), and a signal receiver, which is a photodetector.The LED lights up when it receives an electrical signal, and the searchlight detects this light and seems to send smoke signals on its way but decides to light up with the same electrical message inside the electronics.In fact, those extraordinary capabilities are considered superheroes in electronics rooms, defending tirelessly against the insidious dangers of scrapers that can disrupt sensitive balances.Standing motionless as strong guards, they prevent excessive voltages or unwanted surges from reaching the sensitive electronic components involved, thus avoiding potential hazards and they ensure that the equipment is easy to operate.Also, the speed is definitely amazing to watch! The speed with which messages are transmitted, often referred to as "timeouts," requires the necessity for shorter responses, including computers or devices.Every nanosecond counts in the intense dance of changing mathematics, and these materials excel at facilitating lightning-fast interactions, providing seamless connections and fast responses that can has been crucial to the optimal operation of these devices.Take, if you will, the thrill of a relay race, in which athletes spin the pole with precision and speed, with each flawless transition illustrated in a display of sportsmanship and teamwork that is and around it.Similarly, these features ensure that the signals zip through all circuits with flawless timing and power, comparable to a simple alternative to a relay race rod, and drive the device successfully with unmatched speed and accuracy.As the relay team struggles to deliver the correct handshake, those components set up signals that cycle flawlessly at the same time, indicators of the mastery of electronics and exchanges that they are in the den. Exploring the Functionality of Logic Output Optocouplershow logic output optocouplers workImmersing yourself in how logic output optocouplers work can feel like opening a magic box. They are key players in getting devices to talk to each other safely, seamlessly converting complex signals into meaningful signals for both parties. Integration in IC CircuitsThe optical couplers in the logic output fit snugly into IC circuits, like puzzle pieces finding their proper place. Zip digital signals are transmitted over invisible wires, keeping things secure and separate.Think of it as a small circuit that can transmit messages without ever touching the underlying electric field. They work hard behind your favorite devices.In a world filled with noise and chaos, the presence of interconnected lights emerge as quiet heroes, adept at muffling the disturbing sounds that threaten to infiltrate our circuits.Their sensitivity goes beyond mere light, as they apply ultrasonic power to technology.These sparkling organizations boast impressive specifications that command the respect and admiration of technology enthusiasts around the world.With lightning-fast rise times of only 2 nanoseconds to 35 nanoseconds, and fall times of 2 nanoseconds to 56 nanoseconds, they exhibit remarkable flexibility for the most discerning engineers even nod their heads in agreement.Equipped with such unmatched capabilities, they are still poised and ready to deliver stellar performance on any circuit, while effortlessly taking over their surroundings the stress-free tension.Whether they’re a low-profile, soft-emitting LED light or a rugged motherboard cranking out activity within the confines of your computer, all of these features come together to ensure a seamless connection and a perfect connection without electrical interference without the disturbing effectsAs experienced drivers form rhythmic connections, these interlocking lights facilitate synchronized dialogue, ensuring smooth and error-free communication between each side, and engineering into a melody of energy working in perfect harmony emerges. Enhancing Isolation CapabilitiesIncreasing the isolation capacity at the logic output optocoupler all involves subtle control of the isolation voltage and temperature range. These devices work like competitors, preventing high voltages from damaging sensitive parts of electronic systems.Think of them as football players; The unwanted electrical "target" is stored. By paying attention to these measures, you ensure that your system remains secure and functional in a variety of circumstances.If you dive deeper, data sheets are like treasure maps to make better use of the optocouplers’ isolation features. You are instructed to choose a slower generator, which means lower temperatures and more efficiency in the electrical system.Also, as the maximum delay times for shipping and logistics are nailed down, noise or interruptions can cause the team to fall off, off the speed of your delivery plan. Types of Logic Output OptocouplersLogic output light couplers come in a variety of flavours, each with its own unique touch. You’ve got push-pull and logic gates, which are the chocolate and vanilla of this electronic world, providing ways to safely and effectively process signals in isolated circuits. Push-Pull Logic Output OptocouplersPush-pull logic output optocouplers stand out because they transmit signals that your everyday devices understand. They need a little extra water from an external power supply to work their magic.This relay race is like a handyman, it goes fast and doesn’t throw a baton.A push-pull optocoupler is a reliable team member that always knows when to pass the rod.These features integrate well with electronic systems, allowing the devices to talk to each other securely. They are the heroes behind the PCB, ensuring messages get where they need to go without messing around or causing any risk.Maybe your electronics onboard these guys will play together nicely. Logic-Gate-Output OptocouplersLogic-gate-output light couplers work like angels in electronics. They carry signals from one side to the other, making sure that nothing bad happens along the way. Think of them as stewards who keep everything running smoothly.These features are intelligent because they are able to recognize vital signs and need to be tapped. This makes them perfect for applications where safety and accuracy are paramount.These little heroes come in a variety of forms for different tasks, such as turning on lights or running machines safely. Their function is important because they protect sensitive parts from high or potentially damaging forces.By doing this, they ensure that your equipment is working properly without any hiccups. Uses of Logic Output OptocouplersLogic output optocouplers appear in locations you won't expect, together with making sure your digital gadgets speak to every different accurately.They are invisible heroes in a number of devices, from uncluttered signal amplification to precise manage of electricity float.In Electronic Instrumentation AmplifiersOptical couplers play an important role in logic output in electronic measuring devices. Digital signals are transmitted through a solitary barrier. This means that the input and output sides are untouched and everything is secure.These devices are like secret messengers who never reveal themselves. They ensure that nothing bad like power outage or data error happens to the devices.Optical couplers at the logic output of these amplifiers work with sensors and meters to accurately read the signals. They help avoid noise from other electronic devices that can impair readability.Imagine yourself in a serene room, enveloped in the soft glow of ambient lighting, as you settle into your favorite chair. Picture the gentle melody of your beloved song filling the air, each note resonating with clarity and depth.Now, contrast this with the jarring cacophony of loud car noises intruding upon your musical sanctuary. The discordant sounds disrupt the harmonious flow, robbing you of the joy and immersion that music brings.In a similar way, optical couplers act as guardians of your audio experience, shielding it from the disruptive interference that can distort and degrade the signal.By creating a barrier against external disturbances, these couplers ensure that the purity of the sound remains untainted, allowing for precise and reliable measurements to be taken with utmost accuracy and consistency.Just as a conductor orchestrates a symphony to perfection, these optical couplers conduct a seamless transmission, enabling you to revel in the unadulterated beauty of your music, undisturbed by the noisy chaos that seeks to disrupt your auditory pleasure. With TRIAC DevicesLogic output optocouplers combine with TRIAC devices for double power. They control the AC voltage, allowing things to turn on and off safely. This combination shines in areas like automation systems and consumer electronics.It is all about safe and accurate power management.This combination creates electrical noise and energy up to the curb. When used together, they enable and protect the electronic system. From high-intensity lighting devices to controls, they contribute to the efficiency and safety of many devices. ConclusionSo, we zipped together into the world of logic output optocouplers. They are like little superheroes in electronics, keeping things safe and communicating well over dangerous power outages.From safely routing signals through digital devices to counteracting surges in telecom gear, they do it all. With glass cooling from -40°C to +110°C and superhero speed for signal placement, there’s no denying their power.Whether you’re into building tools or making machines smarter, it’s a smart move to have these little winners on your side. Just remember, in busy cities with circuits and wires, they are quiet heroes keeping the peace. FAQs1. What's an optocoupler, and why do I need it?Think of an optical coupler as a secret messenger that sends text messages between the digital world of your devices without causing them to lose touch. This prevents your electronics from overheating each other at high voltages. So, if you like your device, you want one!2. How does this magic device work?Imagine teasing a friend through a hose in a playground; That's kinda how the optocoupler works. It takes your electrical signal, converts it into light inside its tiny body, and then converts it back into electricity on the other side—no physical connection required!3. Can it handle the big leagues like LED lighting or power supplies?exactly! Whether we’re talking LED lighting or electrical controls, our little hero can carry a huge load without breaking a sweat.4. Is there more than one type?Yes, Siri! Optocouplers come in different styles for different missions—some are like lone wolves (single style), while others like to work in pairs (two styles) Plus, there are different dress codes for different occasions: some SMD for fancy parties Wear /SMT suits and others wear through-the-hole suits for traditional gigs.5. Do these gizmos play nice with all temperatures?They are very dense cookies! They can cool down to really freezing temperatures and still hang around when things are heating up - just look at their glasses to see how hot or cold they can go before inviting you to your electronic party.6. Will my project be eco-friendly using these components?You betcha you! Most of these gadgets are RoHS compliant which means they consider their behavior by not using nasty ingredients that are harming our planet. So, you can tinker away knowing you’re being kind to Mother Earth.

As integrated circuit components are coming up against size limits, manufacturers are turning to new approaches based on stacking extremely thin wafers. However, the thin wafers easily warp under the stresses involved in fabrication, and measuring the stress and warpage has so far proven challenging.In a paper published in the Journal of Applied Crystallography, Professor Patrick McNally's team at Dublin City University, together with collaborators Brian Tanner at Durham University and Andreas Danilewsky at the University of Freiburg, report on a new technique using the Test beamline (B16) at Diamond Light Source to accurately, precisely, and verifiably measure the stress and warpage in individual silicon wafers. The researchers are now cooperating with industry partners to translate their approach into a tool which can be used for quality assurance and to improve fabrication processes. Meanwhile, they continue to work at Diamond to improve the technique and adapt it to different contexts and materials.A stack of measurement troubleIn a 1965 paper, Intel co-founder Gordon Moore observed that the density of transistors in integrated circuits doubled every 18-24 months, a trend which has held well in the decades since. However, manufacturing techniques are nearing the limits of 'Moore's law' as the components printed onto integrated circuits approach atomic dimensions. To continue improving performance, manufacturers are exploring a new direction by combining different chips, each with a specialised function, into a vertical package in a 'more than Moore' approach known as heterogeneous integration.The new technique involves using wafers less than a tenth as thick as those currently in use. Since they are so thin – just 25 to 100 µm – the wafers are extremely flexible, but they are also subjected to extreme stress during the fabrication process. "Imagine you glue together four or five pieces of silicon, each thinner than a human hair, then heat them up to 100-200° C, and then stand on top of them with your boot. Maybe you jump up and down a bit. That's the sort of damage that's done as part of semiconductor processing," explains Professor Patrick McNally of Dublin City University. The stress and resulting warpage of the wafers during manufacturing can lead to malfunctions, altered performance, and silicon 'real estate' lost to stress-related 'keep out zones' on the chip. To avoid these pitfalls, manufacturers are eager to understand how to manage stress and warpage in their design and fabrication processes.So far, measuring the warpage of the individual silicon wafers without damaging them has been impossible, forcing people to use the warpage of the entire package as a proxy. Using the Test beamline (B16) at Diamond, the trio have developed a non-destructive technique to precisely and accurately measure the warpage of each wafer in a package through transmission X-ray diffraction imaging. To confirm their measurement technique, the team included samples with known curvature and displacement from IMEC in Belgium. "We've proven that it can be done reliably and verifiably," said Professor McNally.To industry and beyondWhile the new technique shows great promise, "no one in the semiconductor business is going to back a synchrotron into their fabrication facility," noted Professor McNally. The team has already successfully carried out preliminary trials with a commercial tool as an X-ray source, and work is underway with X-ray metrology companies to bring the technique into industry as a quality assurance tool. Improving the measurement speed of the commercial tools is a major outstanding challenge – measurements done in minutes at Diamond can take hours with commercial tools – but the team is pursuing avenues to improve this.The technique offers an opportunity not only to measure warpage during fabrication but also to improve the design process. Mechanical engineers at a large chip company are working with the team to test the finite element models they use to predict stress and warpage in their designs. "The idea is that we provide a 'sanity check' on their modelling so they can use it to improve their designs," said Professor McNally.Meanwhile, the team is continuing to develop the approach using the facilities at Diamond, which underpins any advancements. The team has recently tested their new technique on chips, which were receiving power to measure how the warpage might change under different usage conditions. "We do our top end development at Diamond," said Professor McNally, explaining that the ability to rapidly test and explore ideas at the synchrotron is crucial before they can be adapted for industry applications.Ref:KY32-MAX1490AEPG+KY32-LMX4169AQFXN