The Kynix Blog

Understanding LC NetworksLC networks are like magic keys that unlock clear signals. LC networks use inductors and capacitors to filter out noise, keeping your devices running smoothly without any annoying interference. Function and Application of LC FiltersLC filters play a big role in keeping electronic devices running smoothly. They cut down on electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI). This means your favorite gadgets, like smartphones and TVs, work better because these filters keep the noise out.Think of them as bouncers at a club who only let the good vibes in.These filters show up in lots of places - from power supply units to RF circuits. In industrial settings, they're key to making sure machines talk to each other without static messing things up.Whether it's for controlling temperature in a manufacturing plant or ensuring clear communication between control systems, LC filters are behind the scenes heroes. They help meet tough standards and ensure gadgets and gear do what they’re supposed to do without any glitchy surprises. Key Components: Inductors and CapacitorsInductors and capacitors are like the salt and pepper of the electronic world. They spice things up in LC filters. Inductors, such as transformers, coils, or chokes, store energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through them.It's like they're holding onto energy for just the right moment to release it. Capacitors do something similar but with an electric field. They save up charge until the circuit needs it.These components work together perfectly to filter out unwanted noise from signals—think of it as cleaning up your favorite song so you can hear every note clearly.In the symphony of electronics, inductors provide the rhythm while capacitors hit the notes.These key players come in various types and sizes for different jobs—like smoothing out power supplies or making sure data gets where it’s going without interference. Some are made specifically for high-speed digital signal processors (DSPs) or analog to digital converters (ADCs), ensuring clear communication without losing any detail along the way.Just imagine trying to watch your favorite show with constant static interrupting—the right combo of these tiny heroes makes sure that doesn’t happen with your gadgets! Exploring RC NetworksDigging into RC networks, we find a world where resistors and capacitors team up. This duo controls electric flow and shapes signals, making our gadgets run smooth as silk. Role and Use of RC FiltersRC filters, made of resistors and capacitors, are the unsung heroes in gadgets we use every day. They control how fast or slow electrical signals change in devices like radios and TVs.This might not sound flashy, but without RC filters, listening to your favorite tunes or binge-watching shows would be a mess. Their main job? To smooth out signal flows, ensuring clear sounds and sharp pictures.Using these components is akin to adding just the right amount of sugar to your coffee; it has to be perfect. I recall hooking up an LED lighting project with some capacitors I had lying around.At first, the lights flickered like a disco ball! It was only after tweaking the resistor values that everything calmed down into a steady glow. That's RC filters at work – they help manage energy flow for smoother operations in electronics everywhere from data acquisition systems to microchip technology setups. Constituent Elements: Resistors and CapacitorsResistors and capacitors are the superheroes of RC networks, zapping away unwanted noise like champs. Think of resistors as the guardians that slow down the electric current, making sure it's just right.They come in various types such as variable resistors and PTC resettable fuses, ready to tackle any challenge. On the flip side, capacitors are like storage bins for electricity. They hold onto electric charge until it's needed and can release it in a flash.Their types range from feed through capacitors to ceramic filters, each with its special power.I once had a project where I mixed up my components and ended up with a wacky signal on my breadboard experiment. It was like trying to listen to your favorite radio station but only getting static—it drove me nuts! After some tinkering, I realized I had used a capacitor where I should have placed a resistor.Swapping them put everything back in harmony—clear tunes with no buzz or hum. This hands-on mess-up taught me the real-world magic these tiny parts play in controlling our electronic world. Comparing LC and RC NetworksChoosing between LC and RC networks is like picking sneakers or loafers - both get you places, but in different styles. LC networks, with their inductors and capacitors, ace at blocking unwanted noise in high-speed circuits.On the flip side, RC networks use resistors and capacitors to slow things down a bit, making them great for audio gear. Each has its spotlight moments depending on the gig! Advantages and Disadvantages of Each TypeLC networks shine because they block low-frequency noise like a champ. Imagine you're in a noisy cafe trying to listen to music. LC filters are like noise-canceling headphones for your device, keeping the annoying hum away.But, there's a catch – these network parts are bulky. Ever tried stuffing an oversized sweater into a small suitcase? That's what adding inductors feels like in circuit design.RC networks, on the other hand, are the compact backpacks of the filter world. They fit almost anywhere because of their simple resistor and capacitor setup. Perfect for tight spaces! But if LC filters are noise-canceling headphones, RC filters are more like basic earplugs.They can't quite handle those low-frequency noises as well. It's a bit like trying to block out café chatter with tissue paper stuffed in your ears - not as effective but better than nothing! ConclusionAlright, now you're in the know about EMI/RFI filters and how LC and RC networks play their part. These little wizards clean up the mess in our gadgets, making sure things run smooth without any annoying interference.Think of them like the unsung heroes behind your favorite devices, working hard so you can binge-watch or game on without a hitch. Whether you're dealing with industrial machines or just keeping your smartphone clear of static, these filters have got your back.It's all about keeping our tech happy and humming along nicely. FAQs1. What's the deal with EMI/RFI filters?Think of EMI/RFI filters as superheroes for your electronics. They fight off unwanted noise from electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI), keeping signals clean and devices happy.2. How do LC and RC networks fit into this picture?Imagine LC (inductor-capacitor) networks as bouncers at a club, only letting in the good vibes (frequencies). RC (resistor-capacitor) networks are like the club's managers, adjusting how much fun (signal strength) gets through to keep everything balanced.3. Can these filters really stop all that electronic noise?Yep! Whether it's buzz from power lines or chatter from other gadgets, these filters use components like capacitors and inductors to block out the racket, ensuring your device only listens to what it should.4. Are there different kinds for all my gadgets?Absolutely! From smartphones needing a tiny touch of quiet with integrated circuits, to big machines craving calm with chunky chokes and coils – there’s a filter for every device under the sun.5. Why do some devices have more than one type of filter?It's like wearing layers on a chilly day. Some devices face more electronic weather than others, so they layer up with both LC and RC networks to stay snug against all types of interference.6. Do I need to be an engineer to understand all this stuff about filters?Not at all! Just remember: EMI/RFI filters are the unsung heroes keeping your electronics free from invisible waves of disruption, ensuring smooth sailing for your favorite tech toys.

New research, led by the University of Southampton, has demonstrated that a nanoscale device, called a memristor, could be the 'missing link' in the development of implants that use electrical signals from the brain to help treat medical conditions.Monitoring neuronal cell activity is fundamental to neuroscience and the development of neuroprosthetics – biomedically engineered devices that are driven by neural activity. However, a persistent problem is the device being able to process the neural data in real-time, which imposes restrictive requirements on bandwidth, energy and computation capacity.In a new study, published in Nature Communications, the researchers showed that memristors could provide real-time processing of neuronal signals (spiking events) leading to efficient data compression and the potential to develop more precise and affordable neuroprosthetics and bioelectronic medicines.Memristors are electrical components that limit or regulate the flow of electrical current in a circuit and can remember the amount of charge that was flowing through it and retain the data, even when the power is turned off.Lead author Isha Gupta, Postgraduate Research Student at the University of Southampton, said: "Our work can significantly contribute towards further enhancing the understanding of neuroscience, developing neuroprosthetics and bio-electronic medicines by building tools essential for interpreting the big data in a more effective way."The research team developed a nanoscale Memristive Integrating Sensor (MIS) into which they fed a series of voltage-time samples, which replicated neuronal electrical activity.Acting like synapses in the brain, the metal-oxide MIS was able to encode and compress (up to 200 times) neuronal spiking activity recorded by multi-electrode arrays. Besides addressing the bandwidth constraints, this approach was also very power efficient – the power needed per recording channel was up to 100 times less when compared to current best practice.Co-author Dr Themis Prodromakis at the University of Southampton said: "We are thrilled that we succeeded in demonstrating that these emerging nanoscale devices, despite being rather simple in architecture, possess ultra-rich dynamics that can be harnessed beyond the obvious memory applications to address the fundamental constraints in bandwidth and power that currently prohibit scaling neural interfaces beyond 1,000 recording channels."

Our modern world is based on semiconductors. In addition to your computer, cellphones and digital cameras, semiconductors are a critical component of a growing number of devices. Think of the high-efficiency LED lights you are putting in your house, along with everything with a lit display or control circuit: cars, refrigerators, ovens, coffee makers and more. You would be hard-pressed to find a modern device that uses electricity that does not have semiconductor circuits in it.While most people have heard of silicon and Silicon Valley, they do not realize that this is just one example of a whole class of materials.But the workhorse silicon – used in all manner of computers and electronic gadgets – has its technical limits, particularly as engineers look to use electronic devices for producing or processing light. The search for new semiconductors is on. Where will these materials innovations come from?What's a semiconductor?As the name suggests, semiconductors are materials that conduct electricity at some temperatures but not others – unlike most metals, which are conductive at any temperature, and insulators like glass, plastic and stone, which usually don't conduct electricity.However, this is not their most important trait. When constructed properly, these materials can modify the electricity moving through them, including limiting the directions it flows and amplifying a signal.The combination of these properties is the basis of diodes and transistors which make up all our modern gadgets. These circuit elements perform a multitude of tasks, including converting the electricity from your wall socket to something usable by the devices, and processing information in the form of zeros and ones.Light can also be absorbed into semiconductors and turned into electrical current and voltage. The process works in reverse as well, allowing for the emission of light. Using this property, we make lasers, LED lights, digital cameras and many other devices.The rise of siliconWhile this all seems very modern, the original discoveries of semiconductors date back to the 1830s. By the 1880s, Alexander Graham Bell experimented with using selenium to transmit sound over a beam of light. Selenium was also used to make some of the first solar cells in the 1880s.A key limitation was the inability to purify the elements being used. Tiny impurities – as small as one in a trillion, or 0.0000000001 percent – could fundamentally change the way a semiconductor behaved. As technology evolved to make purer materials, better semiconductors followed.The first semiconducting transistor was made of germanium in 1948, but silicon quickly rose to become the dominant semiconductor material. Silicon is mechanically strong, relatively easy to purify, and has reasonable electrical properties.It is also incredibly abundant: 28.2 percent of the Earth's crust is silicon. That makes it literally dirt cheap. This almost-perfect semiconductor worked well for making diodes and transistors and still is the basis of almost every computer chip out there. There was one problem: silicon is very inefficient at converting light into an electrical signal, or turning electricity back into light.When the primary use of semiconductors was in computer processors connected by metal wires, this wasn't much of a problem. But, as we moved toward using semiconductors in solar panels, camera sensors and other light-related applications, this weakness of silicon became a real obstacle to progress.Finding new semiconductorsThe search for new semiconductors begins on the periodic table of the elements, a portion of which is in the figure at right.In the column labeled IV, each element forms bonds by sharing four of its electrons with four neighbors. The strongest of these "group IV" elements bonds is for carbon (C), forming diamonds. Diamonds are good insulators (and transparent) because carbon holds on to these electrons so tightly. Generally, a diamond would burn before you could force an electrical current through it.The elements at the bottom of the column, tin (Sn) and lead (Pb), are much more metallic. Like most metals, they hold their bonding electrons so loosely that when a small amount of energy is applied the electrons are free to break their bonds and flow through the material.Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are in between and accordingly are semiconductors. Due to a quirk in the way both of them are structured, however, they are inefficient at exchanging electricity with light.To find materials that work well with light, we have to step to either side of the group IV column. Combining elements from the "group III" and "group V" columns results in materials with semiconducting properties. These "III-V" materials, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), are used to make lasers, LED lights, photodetectors (as found in cameras) and many other devices. They do what silicon does not do well.But why is silicon used for solar panels if it is so bad at converting the light into electricity? Cost. Silicon could be refined from a shovel full of dirt scooped up from anywhere on the Earth's surface; the III-V compounds' constituent elements are far rarer.A standard silicon solar panel converts the sunlight with an efficiency of 10 to 15%. A III-V panel can be three times as efficient, but often costs more than three times as much. The III-V materials are also more brittle than silicon, making them hard to work with in wide panels.However, the III-V materials' increased electron speeds enable construction of much faster transistors, with speeds hundreds of times faster than the ones you find in your computers. They may pave the way for wires inside computers to be replaced with beams of light, significantly improving the speed of data flow.In addition to III-V materials, there are also II-VI materials in use. These materials include some of the sulfides and oxides researched in the 1800s. Combinations of zinc, cadmium, and mercury with tellurium have been used to create infrared cameras as well as solar cells from companies such as First Solar. These materials are notoriously brittle and very challenging to fabricate.The future of semiconductorsHow might new semiconductor materials be used?High power III-V (gallium-nitride) semiconductor electronics will be the backbone of our electrical grid system, converting power for high voltage transmission and back again. New III-V materials (antimonides and bismuthides) are leading the way for infrared sensing for medical, military, other civilian uses, as well new telecommunication possibilities. Earth-abundant element combinations are being explored to make new semiconductors for high-efficiency, but inexpensive, solar cells.And what of the old standby, silicon? Its inability to harness light efficiently does not mean that it is destined for the dust bin of history? Researchers are giving new life to silicon, creating "silicon photonics" to better handle light, rather than just shuttling electrons.One method is the inclusion of small amounts of another group IV element, tin, into silicon or germanium. That changes their properties, allowing them to absorb and emit light more efficiently.The act of including that tin turns out to be difficult, like many other challenges in material science. But as I tell my students all the time, "if it were easy, then it would not be research."      

IntroductionEver found yourself staring at a circuit board, wondering which tiny component holds the key to its perfect operation? More often than not, that unsung hero is the resistor. These fundamental electronic components are crucial for controlling current flow, dividing voltage, and ensuring the stability of your circuits. But with a vast array of values, types, and applications, understanding the "resistor range" can feel like deciphering a secret code. Whether you're a seasoned engineer or a budding electronics enthusiast, selecting the right resistor is paramount to the success of your projects. Have you ever been puzzled by the sheer variety of resistors available, or struggled to pick the perfect one for your specific needs? You're not alone. Many hobbyists and professionals alike face this challenge, often leading to frustration and suboptimal circuit performance. Did you know that the global market for passive electronic components, including resistors, is projected to reach over $30 billion by 2027, driven by the ever-expanding demand in consumer electronics, automotive, and industrial sectors? This highlights the pervasive and critical role resistors play in our technological landscape. In this comprehensive guide, we'll demystify the world of resistor ranges, from standard values and E-series to practical applications and selection tips, ensuring you're well-equipped to make informed decisions for your next electronic endeavor.1.0 Standard Resistor Value RangeResistors are not manufactured in every conceivable ohmic value. Instead, they are produced in a series of 'preferred values' to simplify manufacturing and inventory while still providing a sufficient range for most applications. These standard values are derived from the E-series, which are internationally recognized standards that ensure a consistent and logical progression of resistance values. Understanding these series is fundamental to working with resistors effectively. The concept behind preferred values is to ensure that for any given tolerance, there's always a standard resistor value that falls within the acceptable range of a desired resistance. This systematic approach minimizes the number of unique resistor values that need to be produced, making them more cost-effective and readily available.1.1 Common Resistor Value RangeCommonly encountered resistor values typically span from a few ohms (Ω) to several megaohms (MΩ). For general-purpose applications, you'll frequently work with values like 10 Ω, 22 Ω, 47 Ω, 100 Ω, 220 Ω, 470 Ω, 1 kΩ, 2.2 kΩ, 4.7 kΩ, 10 kΩ, 22 kΩ, 47 kΩ, 100 kΩ, 220 kΩ, 470 kΩ, 1 MΩ, and 10 MΩ. These values are part of the E-series, which we will delve into in more detail. The selection of these specific values is not arbitrary; they are mathematically chosen to ensure that when combined with their tolerance, they cover the entire resistance spectrum with minimal overlap. This systematic approach simplifies circuit design and component sourcing for engineers and hobbyists alike. For instance, a 100-ohm resistor with a 5% tolerance will have an actual value between 95 ohms and 105 ohms, ensuring that the next standard value (e.g., 110 ohms) doesn't leave a significant gap.1.2 E24 Resistor Series Explained with Value TableThe E24 series is a widely used set of preferred resistor values, typically associated with 5% tolerance resistors. The 'E' stands for 'Exponentials,' and the '24' indicates that there are 24 distinct values per decade (e.g., between 10 and 100 ohms, 100 and 1000 ohms, etc.). This series provides a good balance between component availability and the granularity of resistance values needed for most electronic designs. The values are derived by taking the 24th root of 10 and rounding the results. This logarithmic spacing ensures that the percentage difference between adjacent values is approximately constant. This systematic approach simplifies circuit design by providing a standardized set of values that cover a broad range of applications while minimizing the number of unique components required. It's a testament to efficient engineering, allowing for reliable circuit performance without an overwhelming number of choices.E24 Resistor Series Value TableThe E24 series contains 24 standard resistor values per decade, typically used for 5% tolerance resistors.E24 Series Standard ValuesNo.ValueNo.ValueNo.ValueNo.Value11.071.8133.3195.621.182.0143.6206.231.292.2153.9216.841.3102.4164.3227.551.5112.7174.7238.261.6123.0185.1249.1Usage InstructionsThese base values are multiplied by powers of 10 to cover the complete range of resistance values:Common Resistor Value Range ExamplesMultiplierResistance RangeExample Values×11.0Ω - 9.1Ω1.0Ω, 2.2Ω, 4.7Ω, 8.2Ω×1010Ω - 91Ω10Ω, 22Ω, 47Ω, 82Ω×100100Ω - 910Ω100Ω, 220Ω, 470Ω, 820Ω×1k1kΩ - 9.1kΩ1kΩ, 2.2kΩ, 4.7kΩ, 8.2kΩ×10k10kΩ - 91kΩ10kΩ, 22kΩ, 47kΩ, 82kΩ×100k100kΩ - 910kΩ100kΩ, 220kΩ, 470kΩ, 820kΩ×1M1MΩ - 9.1MΩ1MΩ, 2.2MΩ, 4.7MΩ, 8.2MΩKey Features24 Values Total: 24 distinct standard values per decade5% Tolerance: Commonly used for ±5% tolerance resistorsLogarithmic Spacing: Approximately constant percentage difference between adjacent values (~10%)Wide Application: One of the most commonly used resistor series in electronic design1.3 E12 Resistor Series Explained with Value TableThe E12 series is another common set of preferred resistor values, typically used for 10% tolerance resistors. As the name suggests, it consists of 12 distinct values per decade. While offering fewer options than the E24 series, the E12 series is still widely used due to its simplicity and the broader tolerance range it accommodates. This series is particularly prevalent in less critical applications where a 10% tolerance is acceptable, and cost-effectiveness is a key consideration. The values are also logarithmically spaced, similar to the E24 series, ensuring a consistent percentage difference between adjacent values. This makes it easier for designers to select appropriate resistors without needing an excessive number of unique components. It's a practical choice for many standard electronic circuits, balancing precision with economic viability.E12 Resistor Series Value TableThe E12 series contains 12 standard resistor values per decade, typically used for 10% tolerance resistors.E12 Series Standard ValuesNo.ValueNo.ValueNo.Value11.051.893.921.262.2104.731.572.7115.641.683.3126.8Usage InstructionsThese base values are multiplied by powers of 10 to cover the complete range of resistance values:Common Resistor Value Range ExamplesMultiplierResistance RangeExample Values×11.0Ω - 6.8Ω1.0Ω, 2.2Ω, 3.9Ω, 5.6Ω×1010Ω - 68Ω10Ω, 22Ω, 39Ω, 56Ω×100100Ω - 680Ω100Ω, 220Ω, 390Ω, 560Ω×1k1kΩ - 6.8kΩ1kΩ, 2.2kΩ, 3.9kΩ, 5.6kΩ×10k10kΩ - 68kΩ10kΩ, 22kΩ, 39kΩ, 56kΩ×100k100kΩ - 680kΩ100kΩ, 220kΩ, 390kΩ, 560kΩ×1M1MΩ - 6.8MΩ1MΩ, 2.2MΩ, 3.9MΩ, 5.6MΩKey Features12 Values Total: 12 distinct standard values per decade10% Tolerance: Commonly used for ±10% tolerance resistorsLogarithmic Spacing: Approximately constant percentage difference between adjacent values (~20%)Cost-Effective: Fewer values mean lower inventory costs and simpler component selectionWidely Available: One of the most basic and commonly stocked resistor seriesComparison with E24 SeriesThe E12 series is a subset of the E24 series, containing exactly every other value from the E24 series. This provides adequate coverage for most applications while reducing the number of different components needed.1.4 E96 High-Precision Resistor SeriesFor applications demanding higher precision, the E96 series comes into play. This series is typically used with 1% tolerance resistors and offers 96 distinct values per decade. The increased number of values provides finer granularity, allowing engineers to select resistor values that are much closer to their ideal theoretical requirements. This precision is crucial in sensitive circuits, such as those found in measurement equipment, audio amplifiers, and medical devices, where even small deviations in resistance can significantly impact performance. The values in the E96 series are also logarithmically spaced, but with a much smaller step size compared to E12 or E24, reflecting their use in more demanding applications. While these resistors might be slightly more expensive due to their tighter manufacturing tolerances, their enhanced accuracy often justifies the cost in critical designs.E96 Resistor Series Value Table (First Decade)The E96 series contains 96 standard resistor values per decade, typically used for 1% tolerance precision resistors.E96 Series Standard Values (1.00 - 9.76)No.ValueNo.ValueNo.ValueNo.ValueNo.ValueNo.Value11.00171.47332.15493.16654.64816.8121.02181.50342.21503.24664.75826.9831.05191.54352.26513.32674.87837.1541.07201.58362.32523.40684.99847.3251.10211.62372.37533.48695.11857.5061.13221.65382.43543.57705.23867.6871.15231.69392.49553.65715.36877.8781.18241.74402.55563.74725.49888.0691.21251.78412.61573.83735.62898.25101.24261.82422.67583.92745.76908.45111.27271.87432.74594.02755.90918.66121.30281.91442.80604.12766.04928.87131.33291.96452.87614.22776.19939.09141.37302.00462.94624.32786.34949.31151.40312.05473.01634.42796.49959.53161.43322.10483.09644.53806.65969.76Usage InstructionsThese base values are multiplied by powers of 10 to cover the complete range of resistance values:Example Resistance RangesMultiplierResistance RangeExample Values×11.00Ω - 9.76Ω1.00Ω, 2.21Ω, 4.75Ω, 8.25Ω×1010.0Ω - 97.6Ω10.0Ω, 22.1Ω, 47.5Ω, 82.5Ω×100100Ω - 976Ω100Ω, 221Ω, 475Ω, 825Ω×1k1.00kΩ - 9.76kΩ1.00kΩ, 2.21kΩ, 4.75kΩ, 8.25kΩ×10k10.0kΩ - 97.6kΩ10.0kΩ, 22.1kΩ, 47.5kΩ, 82.5kΩ×100k100kΩ - 976kΩ100kΩ, 221kΩ, 475kΩ, 825kΩ×1M1.00MΩ - 9.76MΩ1.00MΩ, 2.21MΩ, 4.75MΩ, 8.25MΩKey Features96 Values Total: 96 distinct standard values per decade1% Tolerance: Commonly used for ±1% tolerance precision resistorsFine Resolution: Approximately 2% difference between adjacent valuesHigh Precision: Used in precision circuits, measurement equipment, and high-accuracy applicationsThree Significant Figures: Values expressed to three significant figures for precision applicationsMathematical Basis: Derived from the 96th root of 10 (≈1.024)ApplicationsThe E96 series is typically used in:Precision analog circuitsMeasurement and test equipmentHigh-accuracy voltage dividersFilter circuits requiring precise component valuesProfessional and laboratory equipment1.5 1/4 Watt and Other Common Power Resistor Value RangesBeyond resistance value and tolerance, a crucial characteristic of any resistor is its power rating, measured in watts (W). This rating indicates the maximum amount of power a resistor can safely dissipate as heat without being damaged. Common power ratings for through-hole resistors include 1/8 W, 1/4 W, 1/2 W, 1 W, and 2 W. The 1/4 Watt resistor is perhaps the most ubiquitous in hobbyist electronics and many commercial applications due to its compact size and sufficient power handling for low-power circuits. For instance, in a typical Arduino project, a 1/4W resistor is often more than adequate. However, in applications involving higher currents or voltages, such as power supplies or audio amplifiers, resistors with higher power ratings (e.g., 5W, 10W, or even higher) are necessary. These larger resistors are designed to withstand greater heat dissipation and are often physically larger to facilitate this. Always ensure that the resistor's power rating exceeds the maximum power it will dissipate in your circuit to prevent overheating and component failure. Failure to do so can lead to component damage, circuit malfunction, or even fire hazards.2.0 LED Resistor Range Calculation and SelectionLight Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are ubiquitous in modern electronics, from indicator lights to sophisticated display systems. However, unlike traditional incandescent bulbs, LEDs are current-driven devices and require a current-limiting resistor to operate safely and efficiently. Without a resistor, an LED connected directly to a voltage source will draw excessive current, leading to its rapid destruction. The resistor limits the current flowing through the LED to its specified forward current (If), protecting it from damage and ensuring optimal brightness and lifespan. Calculating the correct resistor value is a fundamental skill for anyone working with LEDs. It involves a simple application of Ohm's Law, taking into account the supply voltage, the LED's forward voltage, and its desired forward current. This calculation is critical for preventing thermal runaway and ensuring the longevity of your LED components.2.1 Choosing the Right Resistor Range for Arduino ProjectsArduino boards are incredibly popular for prototyping and hobbyist projects, and interfacing LEDs with Arduino is one of the most common first steps. When connecting an LED to an Arduino, you typically power it from one of the digital output pins, which usually provide 5V (or 3.3V for some boards). To calculate the current-limiting resistor for an LED in an Arduino project, you'll need three key pieces of information:Supply Voltage (Vs): This is the voltage provided by the Arduino pin, typically 5V.LED Forward Voltage (Vf): This is the voltage drop across the LED when it's conducting, which varies by LED color and type (e.g., red LEDs are often around 2V, blue/white LEDs around 3V-3.5V).Desired LED Forward Current (If): This is the optimal operating current for the LED, usually specified in its datasheet (e.g., 20mA for many standard LEDs).The formula to calculate the resistor value (R) is:R = (Vs - Vf) / IfFor example, if you're using a red LED (Vf = 2V, If = 20mA or 0.02A) with a 5V Arduino supply:R = (5V - 2V) / 0.02A = 3V / 0.02A = 150 ΩSo, you would need a 150-ohm resistor. If a 150-ohm resistor isn't readily available, you can choose the next higher standard value from the E-series (e.g., 180 Ω from the E12 or E24 series) to ensure the LED is protected, though it might be slightly dimmer. Always err on the side of a slightly higher resistance to protect your LED. Many Arduino starter kits include a range of common resistors, making it easy to find suitable values for your LED projects.3.0 How to Check Resistor RangeOnce resistors are integrated into a circuit or if you have a collection of unmarked resistors, knowing how to determine their values is essential. While multimeters offer a direct way to measure resistance, understanding resistor color codes and tolerance is equally important, especially for quick identification and verifying component specifications. This section will guide you through the primary methods for identifying resistor values, ensuring you can confidently work with these fundamental components.3.1 Reading Resistor Values with Color CodesFor through-hole resistors, the most common method of indicating resistance value and tolerance is through a series of colored bands. This resistor color code is an internationally recognized system that allows for quick visual identification of a resistor's properties. Most resistors use either four, five, or six bands.Four-Band Resistors: The first two bands represent the significant digits of the resistance value, the third band is the multiplier, and the fourth band indicates the tolerance.Five-Band Resistors: The first three bands are significant digits, the fourth is the multiplier, and the fifth is the tolerance. These are typically used for higher precision resistors.Six-Band Resistors: Similar to five-band resistors, but the sixth band indicates the temperature coefficient, which is important in applications where resistance stability over temperature changes is critical.Each color corresponds to a specific numerical value, multiplier, and tolerance percentage. For example, Brown is 1, Red is 2, Orange is 3, and so on. Gold and Silver are typically used for the tolerance band. Learning a mnemonic like "Bad Beer Rots Our Young Guts But Vodka Goes Well" (Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Grey, White) can help you remember the color sequence.Resistor Color Code Chart - Image Source: EEPower3.2 Understanding the Importance of Resistor Tolerance RangeResistor tolerance refers to the permissible deviation of a resistor's actual resistance value from its stated nominal value, expressed as a percentage. For instance, a 100 Ω resistor with a ±5% tolerance means its actual resistance can be anywhere between 95 Ω and 105 Ω. Understanding tolerance is crucial because it directly impacts circuit performance and reliability. In precision applications, a tight tolerance (e.g., ±1% or even ±0.1%) is essential to ensure that the circuit operates as intended. In less critical applications, a wider tolerance (e.g., ±5% or ±10%) might be acceptable, often at a lower cost.Consider a voltage divider circuit: if the resistors have a wide tolerance, the output voltage might vary significantly from the calculated ideal, potentially affecting the operation of sensitive components. Conversely, in a simple LED current-limiting circuit, a 5% or 10% tolerance resistor is usually sufficient, as minor variations in current won't significantly impact LED brightness or lifespan.Resistor Tolerance Explanation - Image Source: Electronics AreaImportant Note: Always check the tolerance of your resistors, especially in circuits where precise values are critical. Using a resistor with an inappropriate tolerance can lead to unexpected behavior, reduced efficiency, or even circuit failure.4.0 Resistor Value Range Quick Reference ChartHaving a quick reference for resistor values is invaluable for any electronics enthusiast or professional. While color codes are useful for through-hole components, surface-mount device (SMD) resistors use a different marking system. Additionally, understanding variable resistors and their applications, as well as resistor power ratings, completes the picture of resistor selection. This section provides a comprehensive overview of these critical aspects, offering quick charts and explanations to aid in your component selection process.4.1 SMD Resistor Value Range Codes and ChartsSurface-Mount Device (SMD) resistors are tiny, rectangular components commonly used in modern electronics due to their small size and suitability for automated assembly. Unlike their through-hole counterparts, SMD resistors do not use color codes. Instead, their values are typically marked with a numerical code. There are a few common coding systems:Three-Digit Code: The first two digits are the significant figures, and the third digit is the multiplier (number of zeros to add). For example, 103 means 10 followed by three zeros, which is 10,000 Ω or 10 kΩ. 220 means 22 followed by zero zeros, which is 22 Ω.Four-Digit Code: Similar to the three-digit code, but the first three digits are the significant figures, and the fourth digit is the multiplier. For example, 1002 means 100 followed by two zeros, which is 10,000 Ω or 10 kΩ.EIA-96 Code: This system is used for 1% tolerance SMD resistors and consists of a two-digit number followed by a letter. The two-digit number corresponds to a specific value in the E96 series, and the letter indicates the multiplier. For example, 01A means 100 Ω, 22C means 165 kΩ.Image Source: DigiKey TechForum4.2 Variable Resistor Resistance RangeVariable resistors are components whose resistance can be adjusted manually or automatically. They are broadly categorized into:Potentiometers: Three-terminal devices used as voltage dividers, commonly found in volume controls, sensor inputs, and position feedback. Their resistance range is typically specified by their maximum resistance (e.g., 1 kΩ, 10 kΩ, 100 kΩ).Rheostats: Two-terminal devices used to control current by varying resistance in series with a load. They are often used in high-power applications like motor speed control or dimming lights. Their resistance range is also specified by their maximum resistance.Trimmers: Small, often PCB-mounted potentiometers designed for infrequent adjustment, usually during circuit calibration. They come in various resistance ranges, similar to potentiometers.Variable Resistor Types - Image Source: makeabilitylab.github.io4.3 Potentiometer Resistance Range and ApplicationsPotentiometers are incredibly versatile components with a wide range of applications. Their resistance range can vary significantly, from a few ohms to several megaohms, depending on their intended use. Common resistance values include 1 kΩ, 5 kΩ, 10 kΩ, 50 kΩ, 100 kΩ, 500 kΩ, and 1 MΩ.Here are some common applications:Audio Volume Control: Varying the resistance to adjust the output volume of amplifiers and radios.Lighting Dimmers: Controlling the brightness of lights by adjusting the current flow.Sensor Inputs: Used in joysticks, position sensors, and other input devices to translate physical movement into electrical signals.Calibration: Fine-tuning circuit parameters during manufacturing or maintenance.Motor Speed Control: Regulating the speed of small DC motors.4.4 Resistor Power Rating Range OverviewAs discussed earlier, the power rating of a resistor is its maximum power dissipation capability. This is a critical parameter, as exceeding it will lead to the resistor overheating and failing. Resistors are available in a wide range of power ratings, from fractional watts to hundreds of watts.Power RatingTypical Applications1/8 W (0.125 W)Low-power portable devices, small signal circuits1/4 W (0.25 W)General-purpose electronics, Arduino projects, indicator LEDs1/2 W (0.5 W)Slightly higher power circuits, small power supplies1 WModerate power applications, audio circuits2 WPower supplies, motor control, higher current applications> 2 W (Power Resistors)High-power applications, load banks, industrial controlsPro Tip: When selecting a resistor, always choose one with a power rating at least twice the calculated maximum power dissipation to provide a safety margin and ensure long-term reliability. This prevents the resistor from operating at its thermal limits, extending its lifespan and improving overall circuit stability.ConclusionNavigating the vast landscape of resistor ranges might seem daunting at first, but with a solid understanding of standard values, E-series, color codes, and power ratings, you're well on your way to mastering this fundamental aspect of electronics. Resistors, though seemingly simple, are the unsung heroes that ensure our circuits function reliably and efficiently. From the precise E96 series resistors in sensitive medical equipment to the common 1/4 Watt resistors lighting up LEDs in your Arduino projects, each resistor plays a vital role in shaping the flow of electricity. Remember, choosing the right resistor isn't just about matching a numerical value; it's about understanding its tolerance, power handling capabilities, and how it integrates into the broader circuit design. As technology continues to advance, the demand for precise and reliable electronic components will only grow, making your knowledge of resistor ranges more valuable than ever. So, the next time you pick up a resistor, you'll do so with confidence, knowing you're selecting the perfect component to bring your electronic visions to life. What exciting electronic project will you embark on next, now that you're a resistor range expert?Further ReadingResistor - WikipediaResistors - Electronics TutorialsResistor Color Code Calculator - DigiKey

IntroductionWhen locating the different electronic parts in the semiconductor electronics area, voltage regulators are a critical component that is used to determine the reliability and efficacy of the power circuit. These are actually three essential components of the stable DC supply that will deliver the unchanged output voltage to provide the necessary power, even if it should encounter any changes in input voltage or load variations. This article delves into the intricacies of voltage regulators, focusing on the two primary types: linear [efficient, low-noise] and switching regulators [more compact, inefficient, noisy design]. It forms the fundamental part of the investigation by exposing the existing loopholes, the comparison between new and old approaches, the novel design, and the tips on the improvement aspects. Linear Voltage RegulatorsLinear Voltage regulators are straightforward, and the most common varieties are the ones that are applied in the widest range of circuits. They have resistance characteristics through emptying the excess voltage in the form of heat, which eventually generates the output voltage equal to or lower than what has to be expected. Sure, what also comes with widespread uses of linear regulators being simple to operate, accurate and long-lasting is the same strong demand for this kind of regulator. There are three fundamental components of a linear voltage regulator: the series are passed through as examples, for instance, bipolar junction transistor and field-effect transistor. Another feature is that the device has a feedback circuit that senses the output voltage and tweaks as necessary to keep the pass element measurement and levels reasonably stable. The linear regulators can give us the possibility to obtain very good output voltages that have low noise, and by this, their linearity is stable and load-regulated. The humble linear regulator is not without its shortcomings, a major one being its tendency to produce heat while changing current into voltage. One of the major issues that may have arisen in the circuit would have been the power dissipation. Consequently, a large heatsink would have been required to lower temperatures as a larger power consumption is needed, especially since the difference between the input and output voltages is great.Switching Voltage RegulatorsSwitching voltage regulators or SMPS (switch-mode power supply) are proven to be an alternative to linear regulators because of their efficiency and economy. The underlying technique used in these controllers to obtain a constant output is the use of the inductive and capacitive properties and the rapid turning off of the input voltage just after the controlled system starts. The regulators' switching output is much more efficient than linear regulators, which constitutes a big advantage for all, even more so reaching 90% efficiency in some cases. The so-called high-frequency factor does not differ from the classic factor in that the extra voltage is not converted to heat because, being on and off as needed, the transformation element gets switched "on". Even though the switch regulators have a broader range of input voltages and can deliver step-up and step-down conversion, resulting in a breakdown is a consequence of them being limited to a single switch frequency. However, a switching regulator is not simpler than a linear regulator, as the latter has fewer components. In contrast, a switching regulator needs such components as a switching transistor, an inductor, and a control circuit. These features can also lead to increased cost and signal integrity issues, e.g., pumping noise and electromagnetic interference (EMI). Comparison Between Linear and Switching RegulatorsVoltage regulators can be classified as linear and switching voltage regulators. They are categorized with their different features and trading to meet their various applications. Linear regulators are usually simpler, economical, and feature much less noise, but they are best for situations where low power and low noise circuitry are needed. Apart from those, they are better in efficiency compared to other converters when the input and output tension changes, as there is no power wasted because of the pass element. Nonetheless, a switching converter is a superior technology that allows for a wider variation of operating voltages and uses less energy. In some cases, by virtue of their low-temperature heat dissipation ability, they play a vital role in generating heat as a result of the source power disintegration, particularly when it comes to high-power devices as well as battery-powered devices. The cost-added convenience of the switching regulators is realized in operations where a large gap of voltages exists between the input and output; that is, the voltage drops when the power is stepped up or stepped down. Applications of Voltage RegulatorsVoltage regulators find a wide range of applications in the semiconductor electronics industry, including: Power Supplies:Voltage regulators are the core component of power supply units, and their standard operations are to keep the constant and level output voltage necessary for most of the electric tools. Microcontroller and Microprocessor Circuits:The regulators play the role of fine tuners, ensuring a clean supply voltage within the permissible range so that microcontrollers and microprocessors sensitive to voltage variation get the required voltage. Analog and Digital Circuits:Voltage regulators give life to the designed analog and digital circuits, which contain operational amplifiers, data converters and digital logic gates. Thus, their proper working is ensured. Automotive Electronics:The phenomenon is that the car's battery voltage is constantly preserved through the comprehensive protection circuit's regulator, around the nominal value level, subserving various electronic components. Portable Electronics:Energy supply units such as smartphones, laptops, and wearable devices are crucial for portability. Increasing the endurance of portable gadgets is strategic. Industrial and Medical Equipment:A great variety of components from different types of plants and clinical diagnostics system manufacturers make them an essential tool to ensure the success of such mission-critical tasks by keeping error-free and on-time running. Design Considerations for Voltage RegulatorsWhen designing voltage regulators, engineers must consider several important factors, including: Input and Output Voltage Ranges: Regulating the voltage is important in an electric power system as the input and output voltage variation in different units needs to be handled and well controlled by the regulator. Load Requirements:The regulator needs to maintain the required current and power output while keeping the voltage of the output between zero and 12V constant. Efficiency and Heat Dissipation:The concentrations of heat closed time and performance efficiency are to be very carefully fixed in the linear regulator so that it can work and subsequently have no thermal issues. Transient Response and Stability:This regulator shall be equipped to respond quickly to any changes in the load variations or output voltage values that form its task. Noise and EMI:Noise and electromagnetic interference (EMI) in the circuit should be correctly isolated and taken care of whenever possible; the regulator should be in such a way that it doesn't generate noise and EMI. Cost and Size: The device has to be a greener option, and the price should be bearable and apparent to the user so that it can fit in the space available for the application. Future Trends and Technologies in Voltage RegulationThe field is constantly developing and gives birth to new technologies and approaches that are directly related to the exploration of the semiconductor picture of high-speed transition requirements. Some of the key future trends and technologies in voltage regulation include:Wide-bandgap Semiconductors:The high-power and high-frequency applications are undoubtedly a domain for the adoption of wide-bandgap semiconductor materials: silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN).Integrated Voltage Regulators: On-chip voltage regulators are being incorporated into SoC (System on a Chip) designs, which means the electronic systems are less bulky and more comprehensible.Advanced Control and Monitoring:Control algorithms for voltage regulation and tech enhancements of monitoring devices are in progress, and in the not-so-long term, more sophisticated and adaptive power management becomes possible.Wireless Power Transfer:Stand radios coupled with charging technology allow for limitless power intensities and flexibility in terms of remote charging, applicable to portable and wearable devices.Energy Harvesting and Storage:The combination of the voltage regulators together with the energy harvesting and storage systems (e.g., solar cells and batteries) creates the perfect conditions to make the systems autonomous and a lot more eco-friendly. ConclusionBetween the linear and the switching voltage regulators, a profound distinction needs to be created in addition to understanding their usage, which is essential for building electronic circuits that are both efficient and reliable. As the new high-tech grows more quickly and faster, it gives all the possibility that voltage regulators will be needed and will participate in the developed technology systems and complicated electronic devices. This is such a small overview, but the main issues associated with voltage regulations in the semiconductor electronics industry are mentioned in it. So, this overview is aimed at professionals and enthusiasts who want to know about the essence of the problem.

Power grids are becoming more decentralized as renewable energy sources take over as the dominant factor. These cutting-edge technological advancements, while providing opportunities for greater productivity.Why is a new reliability framework necessary?The new components of today's power systems bring up novel difficulties that necessitate a new reliability framework, which has recently been implemented. Assessing the reliability of modern power systems necessitates not only assessing various electro-magnetic and mechanical stability difficulties but also introducing new ideas related to local reliability.New Reliability ConceptA new methodology for reliability analysis in contemporary power systems should be established in order to address the issues brought on by new power system technology. It could keep the main ideas of adequacy and security while also taking into account the effects of grid modernization.Modern Power System Adequacy AssessmentThe cyber-physical structure of the current power system, which consists of three layers—power, communication, coupling, and decision—explains the adequate nature of this system. The proposed adequacy assessment framework is depicted in Fig. 1 in order to address all the drawbacks of reliability evaluation methodologies.Fig. 1. Framework for modern power system adequacy assessment. Source: IEEE Open Journal of Power Electronics As illustrated in Fig. 1, the suggested framework allows for the evaluation of the cyber-physical power system's suitability at three hierarchical levels: generation, generation-transmission, and distribution.GenerationFirst and foremost, sufficient generation system capacity is needed to meet system demand as a whole. As a result, the generating sufficiency in HL I can be assessed similarly to the sufficiency of the traditional power system, as illustrated in Fig. 2(a).Fig. 2. Conventional framework for adequacy assessment. Source: IEEE Open Journal of Power ElectronicsCyber-Physical Generation-Transmission SystemTo make sure that the cyber-physical generation-transmission system in HL II is good enough, the effects of the cyber-layers and the effects of distribution generation must be modeled. Large-scale generation units and distribution networks based on microgrids are shown in simplified form in Fig. 3(a). The microgrids are modeled as a specific node at a Point of Common Coupling (PCC), which is depicted in Fig. 3(b), in order to assess the adequacy of these systems. Fig. 3. Scalable framework for modern power system adequacy: a) main structure as a simplified grid; b) equivalent model of microgrids from distribution systems; c) local adequacy for each microgrid. Source: IEEE Open Journal of Power Electronics Depending on the topology and accompanying power management technique inside each microgrid, this special PCC node may be a load or a generation unit for each microgrid in a distribution network. For example, in the substation microgrid comprising medium-scale generators to provide its load, the equivalent load (which is equal to the generation minus the load) can be taken into account at the PCC in Fig. 3(b). Additionally, the equivalent generation can be assumed at the PCC in Fig. 3(b) if the substation microgrid's generation is greater than its load. The substation's internal generation unit availability, load power, and upstream switch reliability all have an impact on this equivalent generation unit's availability. The MV distribution networks can therefore be characterized for transmission system analysis as equivalent loads or generations. The cyber-physical availability model, as shown in Fig. 2(b), can therefore be used for modeling the reliability of the cyber-physical transmission system.Cyber-Physical Distribution SystemThe reliability of cyber-physical distribution networks can be modeled in HL III for each microgrid based on its structure in HL III-A and for the distribution network in HL III-B, as illustrated in Fig. 1. In distribution networks, there are four different types of microgrid structures: single-customer, partial feeder, full feeder, and substation microgrid. The single customer microgrid's adequacy can be modeled by simplifying its structure, as seen in Fig. 3(c). The distribution network outside of the single-customer microgrid is represented in this form as an equivalent generation unit. The local adequacy of the microgrid must be met depending on the application of the single-customer microgrid, such as household load, hospital load, etc. The partial or full feeder microgrid's adequacy can be evaluated similarly to the single-customer microgrid by treating the single-customer microgrids inside it as a specific equivalent node at PCC, which can be a load or generator. Additionally, by modeling the feeder microgrids as special nodes at PCC, the substation microgrid's adequacy is assessed. The distribution network adequacy assessment's primary focus is on the accessibility as well as the availability of energy sources in each sub-grid. This may necessitate restrictions across sub-grids, particularly for single customers who may wish to be islanded during grid outages in order to retain their adequate supply despite the upstream microgrid's declining adequacy. A distribution network consists of numerous substations, which are connected to the high-voltage grid and to one another by MVAC or MVDC transmission systems. Thus, by modeling each substation microgrid as a particular node at their PCC, be it a load or a generator, which is connected to the main grid, it is possible to assess the adequateness of the cyber-physical distribution systems. Due to the presence of DGs and DESS, distribution system reliability, unlike traditional power systems, necessitates local adequacy assessment. The suggested scalable reliability modeling for distribution networks' microgrids ensures each microgrid's adequate suitability.Modern Power System Security AssessmentIn addition to being adequate, modern power systems also need to be secure due to the various sources of uncertainty they include. Similar to conventional power systems, security can be characterized as a system's capacity to tolerate unforeseen events. As indicated in Fig. 4, the security of modern power systems can be examined in three domains: static, dynamic, and cyber. Fig. 4. Framework for security assessment in modern power systems. Source: IEEE Open Journal of Power ElectronicsStatic SecurityThe steady-state operation of the system following any unforeseen event is referred to as static security. The system frequency, bus voltages, and temperature limits of the equipment must therefore remain within a reasonable range. In contrast to traditional power systems, converters specifically for HV and MV transmission lines require appropriate analysis of their thermal limits due to their restricted overloading capacity. Therefore, corrective measures must be taken to maintain system security because any contingency could lead to link overload. Additionally, after any contingency that results in the islanding of the microgrids, the distribution networks must guarantee that the power quality standards are met in addition to the voltage limitations. This is because the power quality requirements for various applications cannot be the same. Therefore, after islanding the microgrids, active and passive filters must be properly relocated in distribution networks to fulfill static security.Dynamic SecurityIn addition, the power system needs to be dynamically secure in case of an emergency. Modern power systems heavily rely on fluctuating energy sources with low inertia; hence, dynamic security is crucial. It could cause problems with voltage and frequency stability in the power systems. Without the proper voltage regulators, intermittent output power or renewable resources may degrade the grid voltage, which may impact the stability of the voltage. Furthermore, the absence of inertia in more or full renewable energy supplies may have an impact on the stability of the grid's frequency. Intercommuting to nearby grids with HVDC systems and using energy storage systems are required to resolve the frequency stability difficulties in the grid. The overall system security can control the size and placement of renewable energy sources, as well as the connection points, capacity, and ancillary services of HVDC networks. Proper system design can guarantee the entire security of the power system. As a result, just like traditional power systems, power system security evaluation calls for an analysis of voltage, frequency, and angular stability. Additionally, due to the widespread use of power electronic converters, the EMM stability difficulties in modern power systems must be taken into account in security evaluation. Power systems and microgrids may experience serious stability problems as a result of EMM interactions. Due to the quick dynamics of converter control systems, the EMM stability assessment within contingency analysis may be a challenging and time-consuming operation. Therefore, adequate models and tools for EMM stability analysis for security evaluation in modern power systems should be established.Cyber SecurityModern power systems are vulnerable to cyber-security vulnerabilities in addition to static and dynamic security problems. Cyber problems may be connected to either the decision layer or the communication and coupling layer. The physical malfunction of monitoring and measurement devices, as well as the lack of data availability, can have an impact on the system's performance at the communication and coupling layers. Additionally, cyberattacks affecting sensors and shift measurements, as well as physical failure of decision equipment that results in false data being injected into communication links, can lead to poor decisions and malfunctions in power systems. The security of the power system must be ensured against physical failure, data loss, and cyberattacks. These issues could have a number of detrimental effects on the system, including angular and frequency stability due to poor decision-making and a change in the demand-generation balance, issues with islanding detection and grid separation, as well as effects from equipment overloading, all of which could jeopardize the security of the entire system. Therefore, in security evaluation and management, it is necessary to consider the cyber-security of modern power systems.Summarizing the Key PointsThe decentralization of power grids due to renewable energy sources requires a new approach to assessing their reliability. The cyber-physical structure of the current power system consists of three layers: power, communication and coupling, and decision. The main ideas of adequacy and security are taken into account in new reliability framework. The new framework can address all the drawbacks of reliability evaluation methodologies. The cyber-security of modern power systems is a crucial consideration in security evaluation and management.ReferencePeyghami, Saeed, Peter Palensky, and Frede Blaabjerg. “An Overview on the Reliability of Modern Power Electronic-Based Power Systems.” IEEE Open Journal of Power Electronics 1 (2020): 34–50 https://doi.org/10.1109/ojpel.2020.2973926.